Download PRIMARY SOURCES: HAMMURABI`S CODE 18TH CENTURY

42
EARLIESTCIVILIZATIONS
LINI-T ONtr
43
joumey
in pursurt of eternal life, which he
i,Gllgamesh went on an epic
did not find. The story was somber, and emphasized the control that
had over human destiny.
PRIMARY SOURCES:
HAMMURABI'S CODE
18TH CENTURY B.C.E.
CONTINUITY OVER TIME:
THE GREAT FLOOD
What do the following excerpts from Hammurabi's Code tell us
Mesopotamian society under the Babylonians?
about
rvife, his son,
1 17. If a man has contracted a debt, and has given his
serve in th
years
shall
they
daughter. for silver or for labor, three
.of Gilgamesft , a story that dates back to the Tth miliennium,
lriln ancient flood, according to Utnapishtim, a former mofial
gods had placed in an eternal paradise:
house of their purchaser or bondsmaster; in the fourth year they
regain their original condition'..
be cut off'
1 95. lfa son has struck his father, his hands shall
free man, his own eye
1 96. If a man has destroyed the eye of another
.world bellowed like a wild bull...Enlil [a god] heard the clamor and
d,to the gods in council, 'The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep
slrall be destroYed.
lg7. If he has brolcen the bone of a free man, his bone shail be broken'
or broken a bone of a
1 98. if he has destroyed the eye of a peasant,
he shall pay one mina of silver.
199. If he has clestroyed the eye of a man's slave, or broken a bone of
idpered...'tear down your house and build a boat, abandon possessions
look for life...Then take up into the boart the seed of all living creatures'
rnan's slave, lre slrall pay half his valuc.
2l B. lf a physician has treated a lnan with a tnetal knife for a severe -.
wouncJ, and has caused the man to die...his hand shatl be cut off. il
!o.1onger possible,' so the gods agreecl
to exterminate mankind,..[Enlil]
loaded...all that I hacl of gold and of living things, rny
kin, the beast of the field both wild and tame, and all the
...For six days and six nights the winds blew.,.and flood
the world...When the seventh day dawned the storm from
south subsided, the sea grew calm, the flood was stilled...i loosed a
and let her go. She flew arvay, but linding no resting-place she returned.
,[Utnapishtn]
', my
araven, she saw that the waters had retreated..,and she didnot come
Vol'
Sottrce: Andrea, Alfred, andJames H. Overfield, The Human Record'
/
Boston' Houghton
200r.
on clay tablets. Writers used a wedge-shaped stick to mark the symbols
tablets, resulting in cuneilbrm - meaning "wedge-shaped" - that was ul
several thousand years in the Middle East. cuneiform writing was diffic
learn because it involved several hundred signs, so specialized scribes
generally the only ones who knew it, giving them power and status that
did not have. By about 2000 B.C.E. compilers wrote down a famous t
The Epic o.f Gilgame.s/r - that had been passed down orally since at
7th rr-rillennium B.C.E. Gilgatnesh, the rlain character in the story, was a
of an early Sumerian city-;ate, probably Uruk. It explored human frieifi
relations between humans and gods, and parlicularly the meaning of
,Then Enlil went up into the boat, he took me by the hand and my
:.he touched ow foreheads to biess us..."
the,l0th century B.C,E. the Hebrew Bible recorded the story, with
called Noah, who did the bidding of the monotheistic
,h's one god. During the 7th century C.E. the story was compiled by
c,bcholars for the Qur'an, with Noah communicating with only one
ils of tlie slory vary in other ways, but it is basically the sarne
been preserved over the eons, surviving the transition from
to monotheism.
Alfred, and James H Overfield, The Human Record, Vol.
./.
Boston, Houghton Miffiin,
44
UNIT ONE
Religious Beliefs
Mesopotamians, like most other people in ancient civilizations, beli
deities intervened regularly in human affairs, and that their very survi
pended on their abiiity to please the gods. Each city had its own god who it
in higher esteem than all others, and a host of supporting priests devoted
lives to that deity. A ternple dedicated to the special god was usually at
ter of each nrban area. The most distinctive were the ziggurats - large
story pyrarnids constructed by bricks and approached by ramps and stairs.
Priests passed their positions and knowledge to their sons, and they
very high stafus in rnost of the city-states. The high priest performed great
a1s, and others provided music, exorcised evil spirits, and interpreted
Some divined the future by examining the remains of sacrificed animals. i
chaeologists have also found amulets that were probably worn by indivi
to protect them from evil spirits. Evidence also sr.rpports the regular
of religior"rs festivals in which priests read pleasing stories to the god's i
fl'ont of both nobility and ordinary people,
EARLIESTCIVILIZATIONS
45
was vital to agricultural success. However, one important
geographical locations shaped very different political, economic, and
iefs and practices: Egypt was isolated for much of its existence, while
was at a crossroads of population movements. As a result, Meso_
nia-was open to assault from several clirections and was repeatedly coned by invaders, whereas Egypt was surrounded by cresen wiih few groups
eople nearby. Additionally, it was protected fi'om invasion along the Nile
from the south by a series of cataracts, or areas where the water was too
and rocky to allow boats to pass. Another environrnental difference was
flooding. Both areas were subject to heavy downpours that temporarthe land. However, flooding in Egypt was regular and predictable,
l''farmers and political leaders could take preventive and containing rneauln'contrast, flooding
in Mesopotamia was irregular and unpredictable, so
iople had no choice but to react to, rather than prevent and contain, the
that was done. Not only did this difference impact economic and politife, itmay have led to differences in the way trrat people approached lif'e,
Mesopotamians apparently gloomy and resigned to trreir fate in life, and
ians generally more optimistic about their ability to control their destinres.
Gods were associated with various forces of nature, and they often disp
disagreeable hurnan characteristics, such as quarreling and using their
irr selfislr ways. Gods caused flooding (as reflected inThe Epic of Gi'
and the afterlife was seen as full of suffering, an early version of the
he1l.
CIVILIZATION IN EGYPT
While Mesopotamian civilization was developing on one end of the
Crescent, another was growing on the other end along the Nile River in
eastern Afl'ica. The great Egyptian civilization is arguably the longest Ii
world history, stretching from its inception around 3100 B.C.E. until its
quest by the Persians in 525 B.C.E. After that cottquest, Egyptian rulers
bow to more powerfi"rlcivilizations, but they stillparticipated in the
among civilizations for hundreds of years more. For example, the
queen, Cleopatra, was a major player in the struggle for power in Ancient
after the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C.E.
The Natural Environmcnt
The nafural environments of Mesopotamia and Egypt had many common
acteristics. Both were in river valleys and were not a long distance aparl
tliey shared similar latitudes. The weather was generally hot and dry withi
rvinters and rainy seasons. Neither could rely on consistent rainfall for
tES/pt: the Gift of the Nile' Unlike Mcsopotamia, Egypt rvas protected fronr invaders by deser1s to
'and'west, and by cataracts on the Nile. As a result, lhe civilization developed
in relative safety for
EARLIESTCIVILIZATIONS
16 UNIT ONE
Economic Development: Mesopotamia and Egypt Compared
Like the Mesopotamians, most Egyptians were farmers, and both
became increasingly diverse as time passed. As cities grew, craftsmen
techniques for making pottery and textiles, and others specialized in
ing, Ieather production, brick-making, stone cutting, and masonry' A
B.C.E,. Mesopotamian metalworkers invented bronze by alioying copper
to make a harder, stronger metal. Bronze was used to fashion military
as well as farming tools and plows, giving both warriors and farmers i
advantages in their respective occupations. Egyptians did not make use
new invention until after the 17'h century B.C.E. when they were
defeated by the Hyksos (a people from modern day Turkey) who had
military power because of their bronze weapons. Egypt's delayed
bronze was par1ly because their natural environment provided neither
't:.,
copper, and partly because their physical isolation drd not encourage
experiment with different weapons. After about 1000 B.C.E. M
began to develop tools and weapons made of iron with carbon added to
brittleness. By this time, societies were interrelated enough that the
spread rapidly, including to Egypt.
Another important inveution that increased job specialization and econom
ficiency was the wheel. No one knows exactiy when the wheel was i
but the Sumerians probably used wheeled carts long before they began to
nize into city-states in the rnid-4'r' millennium B.C.E. Wheeled carts and
ons allowed heavy loads oI bulk goods to be har.rled over long distances,'
the technology spread to nearby areas, including Egypt. Both Mesopotami
Egypt experimented with maritime travel, with Sumerians learning to na
in the Persian Gulf and theArabian Sea, and the Egyptrans sailing boatsin
Nile and the Red Sea. Specialized occupatiot.ts in ship and boat buildi
peared in both civilizations.
Increasing job specialrzation and transportation improvements
long-distance tracle. Mesopotatnians and Egyptians were already tradi
3500 B.C.E., and by 2300 B.C.E., the Sumerians were trading with
in the Indus River valiey (in rnodern day Pakistan). By the time of the
nrans (about 1900 to 1600 B.c.E.), Mesopotamians were importing silver
Anatolia in the northwest. cedar from Lebanon in the southwest, copper
Arabia in the south, gold from Egypt, and tin from Persia in the southeast,
3000 B.C.E. Egyptians traded actively in the Mediterranean, and a few
later they established regular trade across the Red Sea and eventually to an
African land they called Punt. Egyptians offered gold, linens, Ieather
dried lentils, and silver, and traded for ebony, ivory, cattle, slaves,
mymh (an arornatic).
47
all other ancient civilizations, Egypt's political system reflected
of religious beliefs. At the heart of the government was the
yho was not considered to be just a king, but also a god. Although
iianS often believed that their kings had special access to the gods,
im as purely human, not gods themselves. According to Egyptian
ifirst pharaoh was Menes, who supposedly lived about 3100 B.C.E.,
are not at all sure that he actually existed. What is clear is
and lower areas of the Nile were united under one ruler who
,by an unbroken line of god-kings until about 2500 B.C.E. The
believed to be reincamations of Horus, the sky god, so they were
by a hawk, the symbol of Horus. In this role they maintained
vinely controlled order of the universe. The pharaoh's will was
he was all-knowing and forever correct as the representation of the
. His regulations were carried out without question, and as a reenjoyed more power and prestige than almost any other rulers in
was represented thror"rghout the countryside by a group of offiwere responsible only to him. They were usually ianded nobiliry that
in writing and law. Governors were appointed for key regions and
for supervising irrigation and great public works. Although
usually granted hrs top bureaucrats a great deal of local authority,
,responsible
's power was ultimate, and the state rernained highly centralized. In
;Mesopotamia's political systern was colnposed of city-states, whose
y clashing leaders made centralized government very tenuous.
were most powerful during Egypt's early history, probably because
challenged their power and economic prosperiry was the general
Egypt's long political history is often divided into three eras:
i
The Old Kingdom (3100-2500 B.C.E.) - These were the years when
powerful and the economy was the strongest. The
this
was
era
capped by the construction of the first of the
success of
great pyramids as tornbs for tire pharaohs befween about 2600 and 2100
p,C.E., stretching into tire years of the Middle Kingdom.
pharaohs were most
The Middle Kingdom (2100-1650 B.C.E.) - After a period of instability with unknown causes, pharaohs regained their power during this
fong, relatively peaceful period. During this era, trade with neighbors
became more extensive, and a small lniddle class of officials and merchants developed. Peace and prosperity ended with the invasion of the
:Hyksos, a people who carne from the nofth to conquer the Nile Delta.
- The Hyksos ruled
were defeated by
they
a
century,
but
for
almost
tive Egyptians
frorn Thebes, and the New Kingdom was inaugurated. Even
the Hyksos often married Egyptians and assimilated Egyptian
they were still seen as foreigners, and the new rulers were
reassert Egyptian power. Realizing that they no longer had the
of ignoring the outside world, pharaohs aggressively expanded
of territory north into Syria and Palestine and south into Nubia.
new territories provided a buffer zone fi'om attackers, and the
ly isolationist Egyptians actively sought to convert their new
to Egyptian beliefs and practrces. For the first 300 years of thi
Egypt's armies were generally successful, but military reversals'
during the 1300s B.C.E., and by 1100, the pharaoh again ruled ori
Nile Valley. After that, the kingdorn gradualiy weakened to
invasion, and lost its independence.
The New Kingdom (1550-700 B.C.E.)
HISTORICAL EVIDENCE:
ANCIENT PATRIARCHIES
ali ancient civilizations were patriarchies, Egypt had at
Eiut"rfru.uoh, Hatshepsut, rvho ruled frorn 1473 to 1458
,irg fti New Kingdont' Slte seryed first as regent (a stand-in
irltoo, but eventualiy ruled otr her own' She is famous
to Punt
ing a great naval expedition soutir on the Red lea
luxury
fine
with
i; J*t*, Sudan or Yernen) that returned
i[4s myrrtr, rare woods, ivory, and exotic African anitnals'
fiiiif.rlf. ruler reflected the values of male-dominated
tire male pronoun
:s in two of her behaviors: she often used
beard'
ions in referring to herself, and she also wore a fake
Social Distinctions
The r-nodern stereotype of an Ancient Egyptian is generally that of a pe
dark, straight hair and clay-colored skin. In reality, even before the New
dom, Egyptians ranged frorn dark-skinned people related to the popul
Sub-Saharan Africa to lighter-skinned people related to inhabitants of
west Asia. Egyptians tended to think of themselves as superior to other
so foreigners were generally seen with some suspicion. However,
less pronounced social divisions than Mesopotamia, where more formal
ernerged. Clearly, though, the pharaoh and his high-ranking offrcials had
rior social status, and lower-level officials - along with priests and other
sionals, and artisans - appear to have had higher status than peasants who
up the vast majority of the population. Social mobility (the ability of i
als to change social status) appears to have been possible, since Egypt I
professional military forces and an elaborate bureaucracy of admini
serve the pharaoh. As in Mesopotamia, slavery existed on a limited
slaves were often prisoners of war or debtors that were usually freed
irnagi was defaced and her name blotted out of
rhaps an act ofpatriarchal defiance'
, her
Characteristics
monu-
'lf aorrr. famous for its pyramids, some of the most impressive
impressive
;iUrifr. They held religious sig,ificance, and they contained
and
temples
large
built
also
Egyptians
;mr*, i" irre buriat .f,u,rb.rr.
.rastery of stonework was unrivaled among
fiiues, illustrating that their
frescoes,
ilAr,.iritirurions. They excelled in otler art forms, including
;,fine
debts were paid off.
jewelry, and miniature sculpture'
were far more adian achievements in mathematics and astronomy
based on units
numbers'
of
ifrot. of Egypt. The Sumerian system ,
i.l:t,
r f^, ^^1^,,1^+:-^
time
calculating +i'""a
:66;;rJ 360, are ir.a fo,. ,rodern clay geometry and for
of the sun
a;r.frun.inrajor constellations. and followed the movement
The
astronomy'
of
tor the science
stars carefully, setting the lbundation
',t'*
Like Mesopotamia, Egypt was a patriarchy dorninated by men
is probable that the status of women was higher in Egypt than in
where worlen's position seel"ns to have deteriorated in later days'
women in the upper classes were respected because mariage allianCeS
important for preseruing the continuity of the pharaoh's line and those
high officials. Also, Egyptian religion deified its goddesses as sources of
creativity,
,
hadfewermathematicalarrdscientificachievements,buttheyestabof the solar yeat', whiclt thev dividedi"l: 1? ':::h:;,:1*^t:lt:
rn. calenda, was crucial in predicting t'1t,,*1" 1",11i,
of drugs, and elements of their medical
tro*r.ag. of a
;;ffirh
;;;ilkt.
ffi.
ii.a
'ariety
were passed down to the Greeks'