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Gaius Julius Caesar was born July 13, 100 BC. His father, a Roman official,
was also named Gaius Julius Caesar. His family was one of the oldest in
Rome.
A Political Heritage
Members of Julius Caesar’s family held powerful positions in the
government. Caesar’s uncle Sextus Julius Caesar was a Roman consul.
Caesar’s aunt Julia was married to Gaius Marius, a popular general who
had been consul seven times.
When Caesar was just sixteen years old, his father died. Caesar then
became the head of the household. He married Cornelia, the daughter of
Cinna, a powerful politician from the ruling party. Both Marius (Caesar’s
uncle) and Cinna (Caesar’s father-in-law) were enemies of Sulla, a
general and powerful patrician. Caesar’s family had taught Caesar not to
side with the patricians, but instead to gain the support of the plebians.
Sulla Becomes Dictator
Unfortunately, civil war broke out in Rome three years later. Gaius Marius and Cinna were on the losing
side. The victorious Sulla was then appointed dictator. It was 81 BC and Julius Caesar was not yet twenty
years old.
Although the office of dictator was typically limited to six months, Sulla’s term of office had no limit. Sulla
seized power and took total control of Rome and its possessions. Sulla’s wielding of absolute power set an
example for future dictators to follow. His actions foreshadowed the end of representative government in
Rome.
Sulla Targets Caesar
When Sulla became dictator he had thousands of his political opponents killed. He then transferred their
property to his supporters. In the process both he and his friends became very rich. How would Caesar
and his family, enemies of Sulla, fare under Sulla’s dictatorship?
Sulla was wary of Caesar’s ambition and was determined not to let the nineteen-year-old gain political
power. Sulla’s first action was to order Caesar to divorce Cornelia. When he refused, Sulla retaliated by
seizing Cornelia’s fortune and stripping Caesar of his inheritance. He then prevented Caesar from taking
office as a priest of Jupiter. Caesar, fearing for his life, fled Rome and went into hiding.
Although Caesar’s family persuaded Sulla to spare his life, Caesar did not return to Rome. Instead, he
joined the staff of the Roman governor of Asia where he fought as a soldier stamping out resistance to
Roman rule. During the campaign, Caesar saved the life of a comrade and received the civic crown, one
the highest military honors a Roman soldier could earn.
Sulla ruled Rome with absolute power for two years. He then stunned the city by abruptly resigning the
dictatorship and reestablishing the office of consul. He disbanded his armies. Then, under a constitution
he had enacted himself, Sulla was elected consul. Caesar would later ridicule Sulla for giving up the power
he held as dictator. He is reported to have remarked, “Sulla did not know his political ABCs.”
Returning to Rome
In 78 BC, Caesar was serving in the eastern Mediterranean under Sercilius Isauricus, fighting against
bands of pirates. When news reached him that Sulla had died, Caesar felt it was safe to return home. He
left at once for Rome.
At the time, the Roman people were trying to overturn the constitution Sulla had enacted. Caesar joined
this effort to restore political rights the people had lost under Sulla’s dictatorship. His efforts, however,
were unsuccessful. He knew he should withdraw from politics, but he was a young man who enjoyed
victory and hated defeat.
Caesar was young, but he knew the Romans needed a leader and he wanted to be that leader. To win the
support of the people, Caesar inspired them with his ideas. In dazzling speeches, Caesar roused his
listeners. Cicero, a great Roman orator himself, remarked, “Does anyone speak better than Caesar?”
Caesar was determined to make the most of his gift as a public speaker. To polish his rhetorical skills he
decided to travel to the island of Rhodes. There he could study oration with Cicero’s teacher Apollonius
Molo.
A Threat Made Good
On his way to Rhodes, he was captured by pirates and held for ransom. While waiting for the ransom to
be paid, Caesar scorned his captors. He threatened that when released he would return to hunt them
down. The pirates looked at the youthful Caesar and thought he was joking. But after the ransom was
paid and Caesar was released, he made good on his threat. He caught the pirates and had them crucified.
Having done so, he continued to Rhodes to study with Molo.
While in Rhodes war broke out in Rome’s Asian province. Caesar raised an army and helped stop the
revolt.
Back to Rome
In 74 BC Caesar returned to Rome. Upon his return he learned that he had been elected pontifex—one of
the highest ranks in the Roman priesthood. The position was left vacant by the death of his uncle.
In 70 BC, at the age of thirty, he allied himself with the political leader Pompey. Pompey, like Caesar, was
a proponent of the plebians and worked to gain their support.
Building His Career
Two years after his return to Rome, Caesar’s aunt Julia died. Speaking at her funeral, Caesar took the
opportunity to emphasize his family’s noble heritage, reminding listeners that his father was descended
from the founder of Rome. He used the occasion to voice his support for democratic institutions. His
popularity among the plebians began to grow.
That same year his wife, Cornelia, died. After her death, Caesar went to Spain to serve under the Roman
governor there.
The Roman historian Plutarch reports that in Spain, Caesar, reading a history of Alexander the Great,
burst into tears. Surprised by the display of emotion, his friends asked Caesar why he was crying. Caesar
replied, “Do you think I have not just cause to weep, when I consider that Alexander at my age had
conquered so many nations, and I have all this time done nothing that is memorable.”
Buying the Love of the People
Returning to Rome in 67 BC, Caesar married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla. Although the marriage
may have gained him support among the patrician class, Caesar continued to champion the men whom
Sulla had opposed.
In 65 BC, Caesar was appointed an 'adele' and put in charge of public entertainment in Rome. This was a
very important position as the citizens of Rome expected quality entertainment. It was believed by those
who ran Rome that the people could be kept happy and content if they had access to varied and enjoyable
entertainment. Caesar took to the post with zeal. He borrowed large sums of money to ensure that the
entertainment he provided was the best money could buy. He put on games and festivals for the people.
As a result, he became very popular with the poor of Rome - a considerable part of the city's population.
Pompey Returns to Rome
While Caesar was scheming for political power, the popular general Pompey was busy clearing the
Mediterranean Sea of pirates. He captured Jerusalem and Syria for Rome and took credit for suppressing
the slave revolt led by Spartacus in 67–66 BC. Pompey’s victories in Sicily and Africa had won him the
title of Magnus or “the Great.” He was one of the most powerful men in Rome.
After being elected praetor, Caesar supported policies that were beneficial to Pompey. Consequently,
when Pompey returned to Italy and disbanded his armies he considered Caesar an ally.
Caesar may have gained an ally in Pompey, but he was still deeply in debt. To ease his financial burdens,
Caesar turned to Crassus, the wealthiest citizen of Rome. Crassus loaned Caesar money, sparing Caesar
from being forced into exile because of his debts. Crassus, however, was no friend of Pompey. Caesar’s
role in the politics of Rome was becoming more complicated.
Indebted to Crassus and lacking military honors, Caesar left again for Spain. There, he was able to both
strengthen his financial position and lay the foundations of a military reputation.
Caesar returned to Rome in 60 BC. In his absence, the Senate had alienated Pompey by not granting lands
to his soldiers. Crassus too was dissatisfied with the existing system of government.
The Triumvirate
Sensing an opportunity, the forty-year–old Caesar formed an alliance with Pompey and Crassus. The
three were known as the Triumvirate. The alliance marked the beginning of the end of representative
government in Rome.
To solidify his relationship with Pompey, Caesar gave Pompey his daughter Julia in marriage.
The three men, working in secret, began to manipulate the government. Their first success was to secure
Caesar the office of consul, which he shared with Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus.
Bibulus and his supporters in the Senate, however, sought to prevent most of the legislation Caesar put
forward. In response, Caesar enlisted the support of Pompey.
Pompey’s veteran soldiers filled the streets of Rome and drove Bibulus and his supporters from the
Forum. Fearing for his life, Bibulus became a virtual prisoner in his own house. Through intimidation, and
with the support of Pompey’s soldiers, Caesar had illegally taken control of the government. He and his
partners in the Triumvirate then pushed through the legislation they wanted, including the grant of lands
to Pompey’s soldiers.
At the end of his term of office as a consul, Caesar needed to shield himself from punishment for his
unconstitutional acts. To do so, he needed a military command. As a military commander he would be
immune from prosecution. With the help of Pompey he secured the governorship of the province of Gaul,
a large region in Western Europe, for a period of five years. At the time, German tribes were threatening
Roman control of Gaul. Would Caesar be able to protect Rome’s interests in Gaul?
Success in Gaul
Caesar not only defeated the German tribes, but through conquest extended the Roman Empire west to
the Atlantic Ocean. These conquests came at a huge price: It is estimated that during his campaigns nearly
one million people died and another million were sold into slavery.
All of Gaul became a Roman Province. Forced payments known as tribute began flowing not only to
Rome, but also to Caesar, who was still deeply in debt. With these victories Caesar’s popularity among the
Roman people grew.
In 56 BC the Triumvirate renewed their agreement. Caesar’s term as governor of Gaul was extended, with
the understanding that no successor would be appointed before 50 BC.
This agreement protected Caesar from prosecution until he could be elected consul again. Caesar seemed
to be entering a period when he would be safe. Once he could be elected consul again, he would continue
to have immunity from prosecution. But soon things would change.
Triumvirate Deteriorates
In the interim, Pompey’s wife Julia died. Then Crassus was killed after his defeat in Syria. Pompey became
envious of Caesar’s popularity and began to drift away, allying himself instead with the patricians in the
Senate. How would Pompey use the Senate to undermine Caesar’s power?
First, the Senate enacted a law that would allow the appointment of a new governor for Gaul before 50
BC. Then it forbade Caesar to serve again as consul. This left Caesar a private citizen. He was now liable
for his unconstitutional acts.
Can Caesar Avoid Arrest?
The Senate ordered Caesar to disband his armies and return to Rome. When Caesar refused, Pompey
accused him of treason. Caesar’s friends Mark Antony and Cassius were driven out of the Senate and fled
to Caesar’s camp.
Caesar knew that if he entered Rome without his armies and without immunity he would be arrested and
put on trial. To protect himself, Caesar marched to Rome with one legion of his army.
On January 10, 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River, which was the boundary line between Gaul and
Italy. He knew his act would result in civil war. The historian Suetonius reports that when Caesar was
crossing the river he said, “The die is cast.” Caesar had gone beyond the point of no return.
The Fight for the Roman Republic
The Senate declared war on Caesar and named Pompey to lead them. Pompey believed that his name and
reputation were enough to rally followers. Pompey waited for Caesar’s troops to desert. Pompey was so
certain that Caesar’s troops would soon join him that he made little preparation for war.
Caesar moved quickly toward Rome. When no troops lined up to follow him, Pompey fled to Greece. With
Pompey gone, the Italian cities opened their gates to Caesar. In three months Caesar was master of all
Italy.
Caesar next subdued Pompey’s deputies in Spain. On his return to Italy, Caesar learned that the Senate
had appointed him dictator of the Roman Republic.
Battles at Sea
Meanwhile Pompey regrouped and prepared to battle Caesar. He gathered armies in Egypt and Greece
and took control of the sea with his fleet of warships.
Caesar crossed the Adriatic Sea, and attacked Pompey at Dyrrachium (a city in modern-day Albania).
Pompey’s armies drove Caesar’s legions back.
A second battle took place on August 9, 48 BC. This time Caesar’s army trounced Pompey’s forces.
Caesar’s famous words, reflecting his no-nonsense approach to military battle, were:
Veni, vedi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered.) Pompey fled to Egypt.
Dictator for Life
Caesar did not return to Rome. Instead, he pursued Pompey to Egypt. By the time he reached Egypt,
Pompey was already dead, having been murdered.
In Egypt Caesar met Cleopatra and was captivated by her. He established her as queen of Egypt, with her
younger brother as consort. Cleopatra later gave birth to Caesar’s son whom she named Caesarion. She
hoped that through Caesarion she might gain political power in Rome.
Meanwhile, Pompey’s generals Scipio and Cato were still threatening Caesar’s power, so Caesar went to
Africa to confront them. There, on April 6, 46 BC, Caesar won a campaign against them at the battle of
Thapsus.
Caesar was honored whenever he achieved a victory. Four great public festivals in Rome celebrated his
victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus (on the Black Sea), and Africa.
Godlike Ruler
Over the next two years, Caesar’s army crushed an insurrection in Spain by an army led by Pompey’s
sons. After this victory, Caesar was recognized as “Father of His Country” and made dictator for life.
The Romans declared that Caesar was sacred, like a god. Statues of him were erected in temples. His
portrait decorated Roman coins. The month Quintilis was renamed Julius—July in English—in his honor.
Mark Antony publicly offered him a crown, but Caesar slyly refused it. He knew that the name of king was
distasteful to the common people.
Public Administration
Caesar proved to be an imaginative and effective public administrator. By 46 BC, he had reorganized the
Roman calendar. With small adjustments made in the Middle Ages, Caesar established the calendar that
remains in use today, more than 2,000 years later.
Caesar influenced the Senate in many ways. For the first time, he began to publish the proceedings of the
Senate. To provide better representation for all citizens, Caesar increased the number of the Senators and
granted full citizenship to many of the conquered peoples.
Caesar had a grand vision for the empire. He made plans to produce a uniform system of municipal
government for the Italian cities, to make a digest of Roman law for public use, to build libraries, to drain
marshes, to enlarge the harbor of Ostia, to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, and to carry out
other public works and reforms.
The Ides of March
But some members of the Senate feared that Caesar had become too powerful. They longed for a return to
Rome’s republican form of government.
A group of Senators conspired among themselves to assassinate him. On the Ides of March (March 15, 44
BC) they summoned him to the Senate to read a petition asking him to restore power to the Senate. The
petition, however, was a fake.
Caesar went to the Forum and met with the Senators. He was given the fake petition. As he began to read,
one of the Senators thrust a dagger toward his neck. Caesar grabbed the arm of the assailant, whereupon
the others came forward and began to stab him, among them his friend Brutus.
Caesar fell to his knees at the foot of a statue of his old enemy, Pompey, staining it with his blood. The
assailants then fled the building, leaving Caesar lying dead on the floor. With Caesar dead Rome was
thrown into chaos and the Roman Republic struggled to maintain its democratic institutions.
Historians have debated the reasons for the conspiracy that resulted in Caesar’s assassination. It seems
clear that some, like Brutus, were in the conspiracy for reasons of patriotism. However, some, like
Cassius, simply hated Caesar as a dictator. Historians believe there were sixty conspirators in the plot, but
the names of only twenty are known.
"Our tyrant deserved to die. Here was a man who wanted to be king of the Roman people and master of the whole
world. Those who agree with an ambition like this must also accept the destruction of existing laws and freedoms. It
is not right or fair to want to be king in a state that used to be free and ought to be free today."
-Cicero
"People blame me for mourning the death of my friend. They say my country should be preferred to my friends, as if
they had proved that killing him was good for the state. I did not abandon him as a friend however much I
disapproved of what he was doing." Gaius Matius
Citations:
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Modified from "Caesar, Julius." FactCite. Lincoln Lib. P, 2011. Web. 17 Feb. 2012.
Used some text from
http://hsc.csu.edu.au/ancient_history/personalities/rome/caesar/caesar.html