Download our evidence summary that helps guide our proposal

Soils for Sustainable Development
October 2014
Academic Literature Links
Healthy urban soils are becoming increasingly important as our cities rapidly grow. We face
greater demand for land, food, and nutrients and less polluted environments.
These challenges can all be addressed through a Soils for Sustainable Development program.
Planning for density
and urban ecology
Reduce resource
constraints
(land, nitrogen, food,
phosphurus)
Soils for Cities
Transdisciplinary
Support emerging
economy of green
chemistry and
electric vehicles
Reduce soil, air and
water body pollution
Evidence-based
strategy and
regulation
Capacity building,
training, research,
networks
Soils for Cities
Holistic
Approach
Community links
including open
mapping
Market and green
industry response
This paper collates relevant academic literature to guide an evidence-based approach.
Some key points from the paper are provided.
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Artmann, M 2014 ‘Institutional efficiency of urban soil sealing management – from raising awareness to better
implementation of sustainable development in Germany’ Landscape and Urban Planning 131 83-95

Managing urban environments and steering soil sealing is a challenge for policymakers and planners dealing
with land use conflicts due to their complex and driving forces.

It is concluded that local authorities need to be more aware of their authority and responsibility to limit soil
sealing and guarantee a high urban living quality. Hence more stringent rules should be justified with proof
of their effectiveness before implementation. P83

Soil sealing has become the most intense form of land take (see citations) p84

Decision makers and planners are confronted by a range of barriers to implement sustainable development
such as fiscal constraints or lack of information (see citations) p84

In Germany, aiming to reduce daily land take to 30 ha/day by 2020 p84. 30ha is considered best practice in
EU’s soil sealing guidelines. Guidelines on best practice to limit, mitigate or compensate soil sealing . Institutional
inefficiencies is hampering soil sealing management. Was 130 ha/day (97-03) then 93 ha/day (06-09) p90

A lack of restrictive quantitative land take and sealing targets is also due to a lack of acceptance by local
decision makers and federal states (see citations). P86

Flexibility is needed with soil sealing target, even though flexibility can hamper ecological sustainability
goals at the expense of economic goals. P90

According to Grint (2010), solving wicked problems requires a leader who asks questions and collaborates
with others to find solutions to the problem. As urban authorities hold the main responsibility in steering
urban soil sealing they should act as leader. P91
Cameron, R., Blanusa, T., Taylor, J., Salisbury, A., Halstead, A., Henricot, B. and Thompson, K. (2012) The
domestic garden: its contribution to urban green infrastructure. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. ISSN
1618-8667

Domestic gardens contribute between 22 and 36% of total urban area. In USA lawns cover between 8 and 16
million ha, far surpassing land coverage of major crops.

There may be as much carbon stored within the top 100mm of soil profile alone, as in the entire vegetation
biomass above ground.

Soil carbon storage is reduced by disturbance, so gardens that mimic forest or are low maintenance, follow
permaculture principles have the least impact in terms of CO2 release.

Fertilised lawns are thought to emit up to 10 times more N2O than neighbouring grasslands, mostly because
of higher irrigation rates and soil temperatures. This doesn’t include the energy intensive production of
nitrogen based fertilisers. Phosphate and potassium fertilisers is 20-fold less energy intensive.

Although vegetation and trees hold water temporarily in canopies during flood events, and soil reduces
surface flow, front gardens are increasingly being paved over (75% of the 13% increase of hard surfaces in
Leeds UK in 2008 was due to people paving over front gardens). Leeds subsequently endured more severe
flooding. Lower-density housing has 3-fold less storm water run-off than high-density… (the density
conundrum). Since 2008 you need permission to lay impermeable paving in the UK.

Small city centre gardens support much the same invertebrate wildlife as large suburban ones. In Manhattan
gardens with sunny, flower-rich patches supported diverse pollinator communities, and in Toronto, small
microcosms (sun filled pots with or without vegetation) introduced into gardens recruited plants, seeds and
invertebrates in much the same way as those placed in grassland or forest.
Chen, Y., Day, SD., Shresta, RK., Strahm, BD., Wiseman, PE 2014 ‘Influence of Urban Land Development and
Soil Rehabilitation of Soil-Atmosphere Greenhouse Gas Fluxes Geoderma 226-227, 348-353

A significant element of land use change is the soil disruption that typically accompanies urban land
development, including topsoil removal and replacement, grading, compaction and construction. Soil
movement and post-development soil treatment can have profound effects upon soil carbon stores. P348

Although soil co2 emissions will vary significantly by region, it is still unclear whether urban soils are a net
co2 source or sink and whether this is primarily influenced by management inputs or the initial process of
urbanisation. P349. Soils are a ch4 methane sink.
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Claessens J, Schram-Bijkerk D, Dirven-van Breeman L, Otte P, van Wijnen H ‘The soil-water system as basis
for a climate proof and healthy urban environment: Opportunities identified in a Dutch case study’ Science of
the Total Environment 485-486 (2014) 776-784

Unsealed soil and green spaces increase water storage capacity and can consequently prevent flooding. The
planning of public or private green spaces can have a cooling effect and, in general, have appositive effect on
how people perceive their health.

In practice, technical interventions are often chosen to combat flooding rather than the existing soil-water
system p779

Municipal soil management plans often put the chemical quality of the soil at the centre and devote less
attention to sustainable land use. In order to put the natural soil-water system to optimum use, ambitions in
te field of water storage should be linked to ambitions in the field of soil and green spaces. P.783

An important part of sustainable land use is, for example, the water storage ability of the soil, which combats
flooding but also drought. P783

Cordell, Dana; White, Stuart. 2011. “Peak Phosphorus: Clarifying the Key Issues of a Vigorous Debate about
Long-Term Phosphorus Security.”Sustainability 3, no. 10: 2027-2049.

Estimates of depletion timeline for phosphate rock reserves rang from 30-300 years. Timeline is shrouded by
lack of publically available data and substantial uncertainty. There is general consensus that the quality and
accessibility of remaining reserves are decreasing and costs will increase. p2027

Phosphorus is essential for all life. There is no substitute for phosphorus in crop growth and therefore in
food production. Phosphorus cannot be manufactured (or destroyed). p2028

80% of the phosphorus in rock never reaches the food consumed by humans p2041

To meet future demand: rely less on phosphate rock, reuse manure/human excreta/crop residues/food
waste, change diet, efficiency of food chain, efficiency of agriculture. p2044
Edmondson, JL, Davies ZG, Gaston KJ, Leake JR 2014 ‘Urban Cultivation in Allotments Maintains Soil
Qualities Adversely Affected By Conventional Agriculture’ Journal of Applied Ecology 2014 51, 880-889

Modern agriculture, in seeking to maximise yields to meet growing global food demand, has caused loss of
soil organic carbon (SOC) and compaction, impairing critical regulating and supporting ecosystem services
upon which humans also depend. Own-growing makes an important contribution to food security in urban
areas globally, but its effects on soil qualities that underpin ecosystem service provision are currently
unknown.

Maintenance and protection of the quality of our resource is essential for sustainable food production and for
regulating and supporting ecosystems services upon which we depend.

Our study establishes, for the first time, that small scale urban food production can occur without the penalty
of soil degradation seen in conventional agriculture, and maintains the high soil quality seen in urban green
spaces.

Given the involvement of over 800 million people in urban agriculture globally, and its important
contribution to food security, our findings suggest that to better protect soil functions, local, national and
international urban planning and policy making should promote more urban own-growing in preference to
further intensification of conventional agriculture to meet increasing food demand.
McBride et al 2014 ‘Concentration of lead, cadmium and barium in urban garden-grown vegetables: the
impact of soil variables’ Environmental Pollution 194 (2014) 254-261

The poor relationship between vegetable and soil metal concentrations is attributable to particulate
contamination of vegetables and soil characteristics that influence phytoavailability.
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
Urban garden soils can be moderately to severely contaminated nu one or more metals, with lead, cadmium,
and mercury reported to be most likely to pose some hazard for human health (see citations) p254

However despite some success in linking concentrations of metals in vegetable crops to soil contamination
levels, the results overall have been inconsistent, particularly for lead (see citations) p254

For most garden soils, crop type as proven to be a stronger determinant of the edible crop metal
concentration than soil contamination level (see citations) p255
Hazelton P and Murphy B 2011 Understanding soils in urban environments. CSIRO Publishing, Australia






Failure of soils can impact cities by damaging buildings, roads, landslip, poor water quality, soil
contamination, dryland salinity, degraded ecosystems p1
Soils affect urban ecosystem functions by (p5):
a. -absorbing rain to prevent floods
b. -absorbing effluents and pollutants
c. -nourishing parks and gardens
d. -natural habitat protection of conservation areas
Contaminants in soils influenced by clay content, organic material, iron, manganese oxides, ionic strength,
redox potential and pH p84
Organic contaminants eg dioxins, result from industry eg. Petrol, fuels, oils, solvents. These are toxic,
hydrophobic, 0-20 years, bioaccumulative p85-86
The nature of an ecosystem determined by many parameters including soil type, sunlight, temperature,
elevation, rainfall and seasonal variation in climate. These parameters determine the various nutrients, their
quantities and movement within a natural ecosystem p97
Heat islands within cities can have an impact on soil temp, changing soil quality and soil health p102
Montgomery, D 2008 Dirt – The Erosion of Civilization University of California Press

A civilisation can persist only as long as it retains enough productive soil to feed its people. P23

The estimated rate of world soil erosion now exceeds new soil production by as much as 23 billion tons per
year, an annual loss of not quite one percent of the world’s agricultural soil inventory (xii). P4 At this rate will
run out in a century.

Given that the state of soil determines what can be grown for how long, preserving the basis for the wealth of
future generations requires intergenerational land stewardship. p4

Soil loss is not inevitable. Society still prioritises production over long-term stewardship of the land. P176

Every dollar invested in soil and water conservation can save 5 to 10 times that amount in costs associated
with dredging rivers, building levees and flood control in downstream areas p211

The only ways around the boom and bust cycle that has characterised agricultural societies are to
continuously reduce the amount of land needed to support a person, or limit population and structure
agriculture so as to maintain a balance between soil production and erosion. P237

Today, roughly 6 billion people and 1.5 billion hectares of cultivated land (0.25ha to feed each person). The
worlds most intensively farmed areas ca get to 0.2ha per person which would feed 7.5b people if it becomes
the norm. BUT at our projected loss of cropland by 2050 we will only have 0.1ha available. P239 This is
where cities can help.
Poggio, L, VrA Aaj, B, Hepperle, E, Schulin, R, Marsan, FA, ‘Introducing a method of human health risk
evaluation for planning and soil quality management of heavy metal-polluted soils- An example from
Grusgliasco (Italy)’ Landscape and Urban Planning. Dec 1, 2008, Vol. 88 Issue 2-4, p64

Land use always had a strong influence on soils. In most areas, it is the main factor in today’s soil quality p64

The most important factors influencing health risks that arise from soil contamination are: land use, potential
occupancy by children, bioavailability of contaminants, potential exposure pathways and state of the site
surface (eg paved, with grass or exposed). P65
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
Soil is only one of the sources of exposure to contaminants. The risks due to soil contamination and the costs
of dealing with soil contamination need to be kept in proportion with the total exposure to contaminants
from all sources. P65

The implementation of human health risk information into urban planning would facilitate the development
of healthy and sustainable urban environments (Wong et al 2006)

A decline in environmental quality within the city will eventually worsen the living conditions of the
population (see citations) p65

Less expensive remediation option is change of land use to disrupt source-receptor pathway. P70
Potentially Contaminated Lands Advisory Committee Potentially Contaminated Lands Advisory Committee
Report 9 March 2012 http://www.dtpli.vic.gov.au/planning/panels-and-committees/recent-panels-andcommittees/potentially-contaminated-land-advisory-committee

Recommends changes in identifying sites, applying a precinct-based approach, applying risk-based
approach, dealing with groundwater, dealing with service stations, enforcement, amending Ministerial
Direction No 1 and Environmental Audit Overlay.
Rawlins BG, Harris J, Price S, Bartlett M ‘A review of climate change impacts on urban soil functions with
examples and policy insights from England UK Soil Use and Management 2013 doi:10.1111/sum.12079

Urban soils are very likely to be subject to more extreme variations in climate over the coming decades p1

Climate change direct impacts include variations in soil moisture because of variations in precipitation,
evapotranspiration and erosion. p2

The rising cost of food and the movement towards consumption of locally produced food from domestic
gardens (Hopkins 2008), which typically account for 22-27% of land in urban areas on the UK could
substantially enhance primary production and associated nutrient cycling in urban soils. p3

Carbon storage in urban soil could be enhanced by the application of fine demolition wastes to soil leading to
the formation of inorganic carbonate (Manning 2008) p3

Construction processes increase the susceptibility of soil to sealing through compaction p4

Sealing causes loss of soil function as it introduces a physical barrier between soils and the atmosphere,
reducing their capacity to exchange air and water (Wood et al 2005). P3

Little is clearly understood concerning the role of soils in disease regulation because of the exposure of
human populations to microbial ecology and genotoxic hazards p4 p11

Shrink swell factors are (1) subsoil properties (amount and type of clay particles) (2) climate variables (temp,
rainfall and solar radiation) leading to change in soil moisture (3) uptake of water by roots leading to changes
in soil moisture p5

Prolonged periods of dry weather during summer months are known to increase soil hydrophobicity which
may enhance rapid runoff in urbanised catchments p7

Soil organic matter has a key functional role for urban soils as both a nutrient reserve and as buffering capacity
to contaminants (Craul 1985). Soil microbial communities are clearly different in the urban setting compared
with those found in rural ones, but it is not clear how these differences are functionally manifested p7

Rates of ingestion of soil by children is relatively high, 95% of the population consume 208 mg/day or less,
with a mean estimated intake of 45 mg/day or less (Stanek and Calabrese 1995)

Currently there is a lack of understanding and experience of ecosystem structure and function in planning
departments in part because of the lack of tools suitable to support ‘ecosystem goods and services’ based
approaches to planning. P11
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
For many urban soil function, our knowledge of the soil processes (eg organic matter turnover, biodiversity)
governing them is still insufficient for us to be confident in making predictions relating to the direction of any
change (Kaye et al 2006) p12

As urbanisation continues through the 21st century, governments urgently need to consider how best to
monitor urban soils and their functions. P12
Setala, S, Bardgett, RD, Birkhofer K, Brady, M, Byrne, L, de Ruiter, PC, de Vries, FT, Gardi, C, Hedlund, K,
Hemerik, L, Hotes, S, Liiri, M, Mortimer, SR, Pavao-Zuckerman, M, Pouyat, R, Tsiafouli, M, van der Putten,
WH ‘Urban and Agricultural Soils: Conflicts and Trade-Offs in the Optimization of Ecosystem Services’
Urban Ecosystem (2014) 17:239-253

Despite their seemingly divergent uses of land, agricultural and urban soils share common features with
regards to interactions between ecosystem services. P240

Economic incentives that encourage land managers to recognise and respond to cross scale connections can
be applied to balance demands for different types of ecosystem services. To be effective, incentives need to:
o Account for relationship between biophysical and economic process p248
o Set up feedback processes
o Design to allow costs and benefits for different stakeholder groups to vary through space and time.

Landscape design and planning tools can help. Eg, if the spatial arrangement of unsealed soil surfaces in a city
is designed in relation to the runoff of water instead of being randomly dispersed or arising from unplanned
sprawl development, the infiltration of water into soils during storm events can be maximised (Hatt 2004)
Victorian Auditor Generals Office Managing Contaminated Sites December 2011 Victorian Government
Printers http://www.audit.vic.gov.au/publications/2011-12/20111207-Contaminated-Sites/20111207Contaminated-Sites.html

Around 80% of situations involving contaminated sites are dealt with through the planning element of the
framework, and the remaining 20% are dealt with through the environment protection element. p.vii

an undue emphasis on avoiding legal and financial liability, rather than protecting human health and the
environment. p.vii

DPCD the EPA and Councils are not effectively managing contaminated sites, and consequently cannot
demonstrate that they are reducing potentially significant risks to human health and the environment to
acceptable levels. ...this inaction being driven in part by an undue emphasis on avoiding legal and financial
liability rather than protecting human health and the environment. p.vii

Around 80% of contaminated site issues are being dealt with by councils, as planning and responsible
authorities, however, the councils audited did not have the technical capability required to manage the
complex issues associated with contaminated sites. Councils therefore rely heavily on legal advice. P.xi
Victorian Government Cleaner Environments – Smarter Urban Renewal September 2014
http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/environment-and-wildlife/sustainability/Cleaner-Environments-Smarter-UrbanRenewal

Vision: Victoria has an efficient and effective framework for managing contaminated environments that
facilitates safe and sustainable urban renewal by:
o
Making it easier to unlock the value of brownfield sites and return them to productive uses
o
Harnessing redevelopment activity to create cleaner environments
o
Directing regulation and resources towards a safer environment.
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References
Artmann, M 2014 ‘Institutional efficiency of urban soil sealing management – from raising awareness to better
implementation of sustainable development in Germany’ Landscape and Urban Planning 131 83-95
Cameron, R., Blanusa, T., Taylor, J., Salisbury, A., Halstead, A., Henricot, B. and Thompson, K. (2012) The domestic
garden: its contribution to urban green infrastructure. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. ISSN 1618-8667
Chen, Y., Day, SD., Shresta, RK., Strahm, BD., Wiseman, PE 2014 ‘Influence of Urban Land Development and Soil
Rehabilitation of Soil-Atmosphere Greenhouse Gas Fluxes Geoderma 226-227, 348-353
Claessens J, Schram-Bijkerk D, Dirven-van Breeman L, Otte P, van Wijnen H ‘The soil-water system as basis for a
climate proof and healthy urban environment: Opportunities identified in a Dutch case study’ Science of the Total
Environment 485-486 (2014) 776-784
Cordell, Dana; White, Stuart. 2011. "Peak Phosphorus: Clarifying the Key Issues of a Vigorous Debate about
Long-Term Phosphorus Security. "Sustainability 3, no. 10: 2027-2049.
Edmondson, JL, Davies ZG, Gaston KJ, Leake JR 2014 ‘Urban Cultivation in Allotments Maintains Soil Qualities
Adversely Affected By Conventional Agriculture’ Journal of Applied Ecology 2014 51, 880-889
McBride et al 2014 ‘Concentration of lead, cadmium and barium in urban garden-grown vegetables: the impact of
soil variables’ Environmental Pollution 194 254-261
Hazelton P and Murphy B 2011 Understanding soils in urban environments. CSIRO Publishing, Australia
Montgomery, D 2008 Dirt – The Erosion of Civilization University of California Press
Moonee Valley City Council Land Contamination Strategy 2012
Poggio, L, VrA Aaj, B, Hepperle, E, Schulin, R, Marsan, FA, ‘Introducing a method of human health risk
evaluation for planning and soil quality management of heavy metal-polluted soils- An example from
Grusgliasco (Italy)’ Landscape and Urban Planning. Dec 1, 2008, Vol. 88 Issue 2-4, p64
Potentially Contaminated Lands Advisory Committee Potentially Contaminated Lands Advisory Committee Report 9
March 2012 http://www.dtpli.vic.gov.au/planning/panels-and-committees/recent-panels-andcommittees/potentially-contaminated-land-advisory-committee
Rawlins BG, Harris J, Price S, Bartlett M ‘A review of climate change impacts on urban soil functions with
examples and policy insights from England UK Soil Use and Management 2013 doi:10.1111/sum.12079
Setala, S, Bardgett, RD, Birkhofer K, Brady, M, Byrne, L, de Ruiter, PC, de Vries, FT, Gardi, C, Hedlund, K,
Hemerik, L, Hotes, S, Liiri, M, Mortimer, SR, Pavao-Zuckerman, M, Pouyat, R, Tsiafouli, M, van der Putten, WH
‘Urban and Agricultural Soils: Conflicts and Trade-Offs in the Optimization of Ecosystem Services’ Urban
Ecosystem (2014) 17:239-253
Victorian Auditor Generals Office Managing Contaminated Sites December 2011 Victorian Government Printers
http://www.audit.vic.gov.au/publications/2011-12/20111207-Contaminated-Sites/20111207-Contaminated-Sites.html
Victorian Government Cleaner Environments – Smarter Urban Renewal September 2014
http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/environment-and-wildlife/sustainability/Cleaner-Environments-Smarter-Urban-Renewal
Prepared by Sheridan Blunt, Locii Melbourne [email protected]
LOCII MELBOURNE