Download Perspectives on Sexuality

Perspectives on Sexuality
Introduction
I. Sexuality is a critical force in shaping our lives
II. Sexuality is a central & all-pervasive theme of human existence
A. At its best
1. Sexuality charges our lives with energy, excitement & love
B. At its worst, it brings prejudice, anguish, violence & disease
III. To do it justice, human sexuality must be approached with open minds, with respect for diversity &
with all the modes of inquiry that have been used to illuminate human nature
IV. Good decision-making about sexuality (or anything) requires:
A. Accurate information
V. It is also important to become aware of the variety of sexual lifestyles & concerns of those
who are unlike ourselves
Factors That Contribute to Our Sexuality
I. What is sexuality? – a broad term referring to all aspects of being sexual
A. Many think it refers to sexual behavior & that is certainly an important part of it
B. It encompasses much more – genetic inheritance, anatomy & physiology, reality of being a
sexual creature in a biological sense, thoughts/feelings about body
II. Our sexuality is influenced by many factors
A. Some concentrate on biology (genetics); others concentrate on culture & socialization
B. Some think psyche processes info as result of experiences perceived as positive or negative that
ultimatelycause the person to become who they are
III. Family – genetics & scripted behavior; nature vs. nurture
A. The traditional nuclear family represents less than half of the U. S. households, so the rules
are changing
B. How does family influence the development of healthy sexuality?
1. It teaches us gender roles & expectations
C. Parental approaches that lead to healthy sexual development
1. Parents should be loving and supportive to their children; children receiving affections
will be more likely to give it to others; boys stop getting it earlier
III. Friends – peer group plays powerful role in shaping values & attitudes about sexuality
A. Peer pressure, social judgments & opportunities interact to influence healthy develop-ment;
can leave negative mark (low self esteem, depression, feelings of inadequacy)
IV. Culture – anything & everything that humans learn, including appropriate behavior
A. All cultures have rules governing sexual conduct – some permissive & some restrictive
V. Popular culture – seems to chug right along; Michael Jackson, Catholic church, JonBenet,
Robert Blake, OJ, Swimsuit issue
VI. K-12 Schools – most parents support sex ed in schools
VII. College – exposure to new people and new things, often away from parental influence
Why Study Human Sexuality?
I. Students may take this course because:
A. They are curious about a topic that is often treated with embarrassment, evasion or flippancy
B. They may be looking for ways to improve their own sex lives
C. They may think they have sexual problems that need to be solved
D. They may be planning a career that requires an understanding of human sexuality
E. Or you may need to dispense of a D requirement
II. Practical benefits of taking a course in human sexuality
A. Improving the understanding of the structure & function of your genital organs & those of your
partners, will help you give & receive more pleasure from sex
B. Learning more about how people communicate on sexual topics will increase your chances of
entering into satisfying relationships& avoiding abusive ones
III. The meaning of the word "sex" has broadened
A. Originally "sex" meant simply the categories of male or female based on anatomical characteristics
– still persists like when you fill out a form that asks male or female
B. Starting in the 18th century, the meaning of the word "sex" gradually broadened
C. By the late 19th century, it was applied to the whole topic of genital anatomy& function
D. By the mid-20th century, "sex" was also used to mean sexual attraction & sexual behavior
1. In other words,, the word referred no longer just to a category but also to a phenomenon & a
process
E. Toward the end of the 20th century, therefore, there was a trend toward using another word, gender,
to substitute for the word "sex" in its original meaning – the categories of male & female
F. In sex research, psychology & sociology, gender has a somewhat different meaning
G. The word sexuality may also be used as a euphemism for sex like elderly is euphemism for old
IV. Sex is about relationships – most sexual behavior takes place in the context of relationships (not all
though – like masturbation but for this, there may be an imagined partner who is fantasized about)
A. Sexual relationships are central to many – perhaps most – people's lives & there are several general
points about it
B. Sexual relationships are extremely diverse
1. They may last a few minutes or for several decades
2. They may be motivated by physical attraction. Emotional bonding, a sense of duty, a desire to be
a parent, a desire to conform or rebel or economic factors
C. Real-life sexual relationships are not ideal relationships – you never get exactly what you want so
you must count yourself lucky when you come close
1. We consciously or unconsciously shop around for the best partner we can get, whether it is for a
night or a lifetime
2. When sexual relationships are challenged by interpersonal difficulties or external events, some
endure & some fall apart
D. Sexual behavior & sexual relationships take place in a moral context
V. Sex is about identity
A. Psychologically speaking, identity means the sense of who you are; it is often defined in terms of
the social groups to which you feel you belong
1. Sexuality strongly influences people's identity; most obviously, this is true of people's sense of
which sex they are – their gender identity
2. The great majority of men & women have a gender identity that corresponds to their anatomical
sex, but some have a gender identity that is discordant with their anatomical sex
B. Sexual orientation (direction of one's sexual attractions) is another important aspect of identity;
1. Most are heterosexuals (attracted to opposite sex); there are socially disadvantaged minority
orientations that are most conscious of their sexual orientation as an aspect of their identity
a. Homosexual (gay) –
b. Bisexual –
2. Heterosexuality does not usually confer a strong sense of identity – people take it too much for
granted
C. Other aspects of people's sexuality that may confer a sense of identity
1. People who have group sexual relationships (polyamorists)
2. Swingers & others who engage in sex outside of lasting relationships
3. People who engage in sadomasochistic activities
D. People are likely to have some sense of identity & community with others like them
Our Sexual Climate
I. Americans talk about sex & sexuality all the time
A. Conservative media – criticize culture's overemphasis on sex; sexual themes dominate
culture & the media; claim the government allows too free an expression of sexuality
B. Liberals – culture is sexually repressive & puritanical
C. Others claim that there are mixed messages about sexuality – used to market/sell nearly
everything while most schools can't teach it in comprehensive, forthright manner
II. Government, society & other ethical systems influence sexuality in many ways – positive,
negative, ambiguous
A. We are sexual beings from conception on; our sexuality evolves & grows despite official
sanctions or restrictions
B. We learn about it whether we learn it from school or from somewhere else; it is not whether
we learn but the quality of that learning
C. Social conflicts on issues like sex education & abstinence result mainly from differences in people's
ethical beliefs – where do differences come from?; ethical systems can be sex-positive or -negative
1. People's sense of right & wrong behavior, in sex as in other areas, derives from many sources
2. There are sex positive & sex-negative ethical traditions
a. Sex-negative traditions label many – perhaps all – sexual behaviors as wrong; early Christianity
was dominated by sex-negative ideas
b. Among the most sex-positive traditions, on the other hand, are those of some Pacific islands
(Mangaia in the Cook Islands)
c. US culture contains a mixture of sex-positive & sex-negative elements that are often at war with
each other
D. Sexual ethics may be founded on:
1. Religious or other authority (homosexuality is against God's law)
E. Because of these varied modes of ethical thought, people (including professional ethicists) have
diverging views on what is right & wrong & sexual ethics may change over time
1. Bernadette Brooton (Brandeis Univ.) leads a group that is concerned with the reworking of Jewish
& Christian sexual ethics in the light of feminist theory
a. In the New Testament, St. Paul roundly condemned sex between women in his Epistle to the
Romans
There Are Many Approaches to the Study of Sexuality
I. Human sexuality can be studied by many different modes of inquiry, since it affects so many different
aspects of our lives
A. Practitioners of these different disciplines make different assumptions about the purpose,
mechanisms, & development of sexual feelings & behaviors
B. In recent years, study of human sexuality has accelerated
1. This reflects the increasing acceptance of sex & sexuality as a topic of discourse by society in
general
II. Biomedical research focuses on underlying mechanisms of sex – over time, medical science has gathered
info about physical basis of sexuality – in particular, structure, function & development of the systems
A. Starting at the time of the Renaissance, anatomists made detailed studies of the internal
reproductive tracts of men & women
B. In 20th century, endocrinologists & reproductive physiologists explored the hormonal systems that
make men's & women's bodies so different from each other
1. They also give women something men don't have, a menstrual cycle & the capacity to nurture a
fetus
C. Physiological observation of sexual responses has also been valuable, especially the contributions of
William Masters (1915 – 2001) & his collaborator & later his wife Virginia Johnson (born 1925)
1. They worked at the Washington University School of Medicine; starting in the late 1950s, they
recruited volunteers to engage in sexual behavior (solitary or partnered0 in their lab
D. The study of the body's chemical messengers (endocrinology, neuropharmacology) has had a great
impact on sexuality
1. Discovery of sex hormones in the middle of the 20th century led to:
a. Oral contraceptives
b. In vitro fertilization
2. Clarification of chemical mechanisms of penile erection led to 1999 introduction of sildenafil
(Viagra) for erectile dysfunction treatment in men, followed by other drugs in same class
3. Identification of serotonin & other neurotransmitters in the CNS led to the introduction of
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (Prozac-type drugs)
4. Identification of the hormones that regulate the secretions of the pituitary gland led to drugs for
the treatment of precocious & delayed puberty
E. All of the advances mentioned above in D were made possible by research in lab animals
1. Also, researchers study the sexual behavior of animals, both in the lab & in the wild; they have
observed an extraordinary diversity of sexual behavior & sexual relationships
2. There is no standard form of sexuality in the animal kingdom to which humans need to conform;
rather, each species' sexuality is the product of its own evolutionary history
III. Psychiatry is concerned with mental "health" & "sickness" – psychiatry is the branch of medicine
concerned with mental & behavioral disorders
A. It has had a lot to say about sex, but its contributions have been more controversial than those of the
other branches of medicine for several reasons
1. We still have only a very limited understanding of how the brain generates mental states
B. For example, Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840 – 1902) – wrote a best-selling treatise entitled
Psychopathia Sexualis (1886) that dealt with sexual disorders
1. A compendium of 237 case histories illustrating all kinds of sexual deviations, including:
2. A great part of the book's appeal was graphic accounts of these deviations , some of which
would be shocking even today
3. Krafft-Ebing claimed the right to "name" sexual disorders & to "diagnose" people who suffered
from them
4. Despite these controversies, the idea that sexual aberrations can be named/diagnosed is codified
in American Psychiatric Assn.'s Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
a. It is revised periodically, e.g., in 1973, after much struggle, homosexuality was removed from
the list of mental disorders
IV. Psychologists have taken diverse approaches to sexuality
A. Psychology (the study of mental processes & behaviors) has splintered into many kinds of
overlapping subdisciplines, several of which offer unique perspectives on sexuality
1. Probably, the most significant branch in the study of sexuality is social psychology (the study of
how we think about, influence & relate to other people)
2. Social psychologists concern themselves with all kinds of sexual matters like:
a. Sexual attraction & relationships, gender differences, homosexuality, sexual assault, intimatepartner violence & anti-gay prejudice)
3. Example of experimental study – UCLA; do portrayals of sexual violence in media &
pornography make men more accepting of such violence, as has been asserted by many feminists
a. From group of male college students, half were assigned randomly to watch moves that
portrayed sexual violence against women
b. The controls (the other students) watched movies that contained no sexual violence
B. Psychobiologists (biological psychologists) occupy the interface between psychology & the
biological sciences, especially neuroscience & endocrinology
1. Psychobiologists interested in sexual behaviors often study these behaviors in lab animals rather
than in humans, because their experiments may involve risk to their subjects or…..
2. Recent advances in brain imaging technology have allowed them to study the brain basis of
sexuality in living humans
C. Cultural (or cross-cultural) psychologists concern themselves with the influence of ethnic & cultural
diversity on thought, behavior & interpersonal relationships
1. Where cultural psychology focuses on differences between entire societies, it overlaps
extensively with anthropology, especially the branch known as cultural anthropology
2. The prime research method employed by cultural psychologists is fieldwork; researchers may
spend months or even years embedded in the societies they study
3. Margaret Mead was a pioneer in this field (1901 – 1978), who studied the development of sexual
attitudes & gender differences in Pacific Island societies
4. They have found sex practices & attitudes are far more diverse than might be imagined – Gilbert
Herdt (ex.), a cultural anthropologist who now directs the Human Sexuality program at SF State U.
5. Cultural psychologists have also found some striking variations in the criteria used to judge sexual
attractiveness as well as the kinds of sexual relationships that are sanctioned in different societies
6. Many diverse ethnic & cultural traditions exist in the US so there is ample room for cultural
studies of sexuality & gender within our own society
7. Cultural diversity is not a sexual free-for-all; some aspects of human sexuality are remarkably
consistent from one society to another; some examples:
D. Evolutionary psychologists seek to explain how evolution has molded our genetic endowment to
favor certain patterns of sexual feelings & behaviors
1. An idea in evolutionary psychology is that, since reproduction is so much more demanding for females
than males, genes have evolved that cause females to be very picky in choice of sex partners
2. As a result, other genes have evolved that cause males to engage in competitive & risky sexual
displays – displays that are intended to influence females' choices
3. It's well established that men are more likely than women to engage in risky behaviors, but not
clear whether the risks we take in everyday life are actually sexual displays – Liverpool U. study
E. Clinical psychologists deal with emotional, behavioral & personality problems – problems that often
have a sexual element
1. A related subgroup is sex therapists, who deal specifically with problems that interfere with the
enjoyment of sex (premature ejaculation, lack of sexual desire)
2. In the US, sex therapistsmay be certified by the Society for Sex Therapy & Research (SSTAR)
or by the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors & Therapists (AASECT)
F. Health psychologists focus on the influence that illnesses such as diabetes & arthritis, or symptoms
such as fatigue & pain, may have on sexuality
1. They will assist survivors of breast cancer, amputation or heart attacks to cope with how the
disease has changed their image of themselves & their relationship with their partner
V. Sociologists focus on the connection between sex & society – sociology is the scientific study of
society
A. Sociologists link sexual behaviors & attitudes of individuals to larger social structures; this is a
unique contribution to the study of human sexuality
B. They can take a demographic approach to sexuality; they examine how sexual expression varies with
age, race, national origin, religious & political beliefs, place of residence, educational level, etc.
C. The most famous sex survey was conducted by zoologist Alfred Kinsey & his colleagues at Indiana
U. in the middle of the 20th century; they interviewed ~17,000 Americans about their sex lives
1. Results were published in 2 thick data-rich volumes (Sexual Behavior in the Human Male in
1948 & Sexual Behavior in the Human Female in 1953
2. The reports stated that 37& of men had had at least one sexual contact with another male
resulting in orgasm at some time between adolescence & old age
3. People are unaccustomed to answering questions about intimate details of their sex lives or
about stigmatized behaviors (like marital infidelity)
4. Despite the large number of interviewees in Kinsey surveys, their answers were not necessarily
representative of US pop. as a whole let alone of entire human race as implied by titles
D. With the onset of AIDS epidemic around 1980, the need for detailed information about sexual
attitudes & practices spurred a host of new sex surveys
1. 1992 – most notable was a survey conducted by sociologists at the Univ. of Chicago &
elsewhere, the National Health & Social Life Survey (NHSLS)
2. National Center for Health Statistics, a CDC branch, has also entered the sex survey business;
there is also a British survey (National Survey of Sexual Attitudes & Lifestyles (NSSAL)
3. There are also magazine-sponsored surveys; they are more up-to-date & also tend to cover
intimate topics that official surveys ignore
E. Sociologists are interested in the communities within which sexual relationships are established &
maintained
1. Most Americans are now city-dwellers; there is a perception that the city is a place where
anything goes, where anyone can hook up with anyone, where any fantasy can become fact
2. What is the mechanism by which social structures (from family to mass media) mold individual
feelings & behaviors?
a. Some think social structures promote a kind of role-playing behavior in which people are like
performers in play, perhaps a play that is a product of a collective rather than a single playwright
b. Eggermont wanted to know whether TV viewing influences teenagers' ideas about how to
obtain sexual contacts
(1) He specifically wanted to know whether they believed that an overtly sexual strategy (like
suggestive touching) or a romantic strategy (candlelight dinner strategy) was more effective
VI. Sociologists may take an ethnographic approach – sociologists sometimes immerse themselves in
their subjects in the same way as cultural anthropologists do
A. This approach is called ethnography, the personal interpretation of a cultural group based on
fieldwork – an example is the work of Teela Sanders of Leeds U.
1. While a graduate student, Sanders spent 11 months closely observing the lives of off-street
prostitutes in the city of Birmingham
2. Sanders found a highly structured world inside these illegal brothels – the prostitutes themselves
were the financial hubs of networks of complicit co-workers
3. Sanders concluded that off-street prostitutes are not the passive victims of poverty or drugs as
many streetwalking prostitutes are, …..
B. Ethnographers of sex must be willing to go wherever sex is transacted – brothels, singles bars, strip
joints sordid street corners & even men's restrooms
VII. Feminists emphasize women's sexual rights – feminism is the belief that women are entitled to the
same social, economic & political rights as men & the organized pursuit of these goals
A. Feminism has had a profound influence on how Americans think about sexuality
B. Margaret Sanger (1879 – 1966) – campaigned tirelessly for women's right to learn about & how to
use contraceptives
C. A second period of feminism began in the 1960s
1. It had its heyday in the 1970s; in the sexual domain, central themes were a woman's entitlement to:
2. The bible of this movement was Our Bodies, Ourselves first published by the Boston Women's
Health Book Collective in 1970
3. A dominant idea in 1970s feminism was that differences between the sexes are established by
learning & culture
4. In contrast, some feminists like Carol Gilligan emphasized that men & women were fundamentally distinct
or even that women were superior to men in important respects, like being more caring
D. During the 1980s, feminism was shaken up by writers outside of academe, like self-described
pornographer Susie Bright, who reveled in "down & dirty" female sexuality
1. She edited a groundbreaking lesbian sex magazine, On Our Backs; she has since authored
innumerable popular books, articles & online columns that celebrate unorthodox sex
2. Another voice dissenting from traditional feminism is that of cultural critic Camille Paglia
3. Yet another way in which feminism was challenged & transformed in the 1980s was by the
voices of diverse minorities, like those of Chicana lesbians
VIII. Sex research is becoming a discipline in its own right – it is an unusual one that demands a training
that crosses most of the traditionally established intellectual boundaries
A. The study of sex is sometimes referred to as sexology, although people who call themselves
sexologists tend to be those who focus on sexual dysfunctions
1. Sex research is probably a broader & more widely understood term
2. It is now fostered by numerous organizations at local, international & global levels
Sex Education Faces Significant Obstacles
I. Difficulties similar to those encountered by Margaret Sanger have plagued education in all aspects of
human sexuality & continue to do so today
A. Religious conservatives may oppose sex education programs in schools for a number of reasons
1. They may believe that abstinence until marriage is a moral imperative – even though only 5% of
Americans obey it
B. Because of pressure from religious conservative groups, there is a strong emphasis on abstinence in
school sex education today
1. According to a Guttmacher Inst. study, 1 in 3 US teenagers receives no education about birth
control
C. Some non-profit organizations are dedicated to improving access to comprehensive sex education
D. Health education specialist Claire Haignere has done a detailed review of studies on the
effectiveness of school sex-education programs
E. Whatever the deficiencies of sex education in the US, the teen pregnancy rate has been declining
steadily; it is now 36% below its peak in 1990, though still above the rates for many other countries
1. This drop is part of an international trend & is due largely to improved contraceptive use
II. The political controversy reflects social divisions – besides opposing comprehensive sex education in
schools, the US government has also opposed international sex-education initiatives
A. In 1994, the US had joined 178 other nations in creating the "Cairo consensus", which affirmed the
right to comprehensive sex- & family-planning education
B. Of course, these political attitudes could not exist without considerable public support - in fact,
human sexuality classes often represent liberal microenvironments; an example follows:
1. In 2008, Simon LeVay polled students in a human sexuality class at U. C. Santa Barbara about
their attitudes to same-sex marriage
2. It is important to keep the existence of this conservative climate in mind, and not to dismiss it as
ill-intentioned or uninformed