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Physical Anthropology 101
Notes & Assignments Packet
Fall 2011
Professor K. Markley
Table of Contents
Overview of the Reading Packet Pgs. 4-8
Tips for a Successful Semester
How to figure out your grade
Extra Credit Options
Chapt. 1- Science pages 9-10
Chapt. 2- Natural Selection 11-17
What Darwin Never Saw- Video Questions
Chapt. 3- Genetics pages 18-24
Nature/Nurture Debate
Chapt. 4- Processes of Evolution pages 25-26
Chapter 5- Origin of Species pages 27-34
Evolution, Creationism, and Pseudo-Science
History of Life on Earth- Overview
Brief History of Life on Earth- Notes
Mammals
Great Transformations- Video Questions
Testing Evolution, Sexual Selection and Hardy Weinberg- Pages 35-40
Taxonomic Categorization and Primates pages 41-47
Taxonomic Classifications
Primates Overview
Primate Studies Overview
Science and Kuhn
Ultimate Guide to the Great Apes- Video Questions
New Chimpanzees- Video Questions
Studying the Past Pages 48-50
Dating Techniques
Origin and Evolution of Primates
Hominin Fossil Record pages 51-60
Hominin Fossil Record Overview
Hominin Family Tree
In Search of Human Origins- Video Questions
Modern Human Origins debate
Evolution and Adaptation in Human Populations- pages 61-68
Human Populations
Epidemiological Transitions
Human Biological Diversity and the Race Concept
Race: The Power of An Illusion – Video Questions
Chapter 15- Biological Anthropology: Applications and Lessons
Anthropology: The Study of Humans- pages 69-70
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Assignments Pages 72-85
Articles- MIR’s
MIR articles website links
Physical Anthropology True/False Survey
What Happened to the Dinosaurs/Science
Darwin/Lamarck
Protein Synthesis and Sickle-Cell Anemia
Punnett squares/ Genetics Assignment
Processes of Evolution
Sickle Cell Anemia
Hardy Weinberg Problems
Baboon Studies
Zoo Report- Extra Credit Option
Human Variation Fieldwork (Race Fieldwork)
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Overview of Notes and Assignments Packet
This Notes and Assignments packet contains notes to accompany classroom lecture, your text and
homework assignments. Bring this packet to class each day.
Daily Reading Assignments: see the Class Schedule for specific assignments and dates.
For each class session there are readings assigned, from the text and from online articles. After
you have read the assigned chapter you should be able to answer most of the questions in this
notes packet. So, after you read Chapter 1 you should be able to answer most of the questions in
the Notes Packet on science. It is not expected you will understand all of the material once you
read the text. Class lecture, homework assignments and in class assignments will aid you in
mastering the material for each chapter. To be successful in this class the goal is not just to learn
the material presented but to critically reason in regards to how we know what we know, and
analyze the different perspectives offered.
SYLLABUS & CLASS SCHEDULE
Read the syllabus! The syllabus gives you the information you need to be successful in the class.
If you have a question, more often than not your syllabus will contain the answer.
The class schedule has three columns; the date, readings and topics, and assignments due.
Refer to your class schedule EVERY week to keep up to date on reading assignments and
homework assignments. The dates for when your assignments are due is listed in your class
schedule. Any changes will be announced at the beginning of class (come to class on time
every day or make sure to get notes from a fellow student).
Attendance: Success in this class (success= passing this class with a C or better) will require that
you attend class regularly. It is not uncommon to miss one class at some point during the
semester, either due to an illness or some other serious problem. If you miss class it is your
responsibility to get the information that you missed. I DO NOT GIVE OUT NOTES FROM A
MISSED LECTURE. I advise you to get to know a couple of other students in the class and
exchange email or phone numbers (if you feel comfortable doing this) so that you can find out what
you missed if you are absent. It can be helpful to connect with a fellow student in class who is
reliable note taker. If you have questions about the material covered while you were absent (and
you have already gotten notes from another student) feel free to make an appt. during my office
hours.
Articles: There are a number of articles assigned which can be found online. Students are
expected to read these articles and type out a Main Idea Review (MIR) See the class schedule for
the articles assigned. At the back of this packet is the instructions for how to complete the MIR’s.
You can also get the articles from the Physical Anthropology Annual Editions text on reserve in the
library.
FYI- It is common to have to read the articles more than once to clearly understand the key
point(s). The authors will often include a lot of data and reasoning to support their key
point(s) and it takes time to filter through the supportive information to get at the main
point(s).
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Tips for a Successful Semester
A strategy for success includes: read assigned chapters in Park’s textbook and assigned articles
prior to class lectures, answer the questions in this notebook (PRIOR to class). Come to class
prepared to actively engage in learning, come to class with questions on the material! 
Learning is an ACTIVE endeavor. If you are passively listening or passively reading/memorizing
classroom material you will not gain the type of understanding that is needed to be successful. To
be successful you will need to know the definitions for concepts and terms but this is only the start.
To do well on you will need to be able to recognize and apply what you are learning. If you can
explain what you are learning to someone else that is generally a good indication that you are
learning the material. Work to put concepts into your own words (although make sure the words
mean the same thing!). Ultimately to be successful you will need to be engaged in class lecture,
discussion, as well as spend significant amounts of time outside class on class material. Being an
active and engaged learner includes; raising your hand and asking questions, making
observations and comments on the material presented in class and in the text.
Read your textbook and articles before class lecture. The class schedule has dates for
readings and assignments. It is a good idea to first skim over assigned readings to get an idea as
to what the reading is about, where it is going and what you should look for. Read assigned
chapters and articles before class lecture. Familiarize yourself with the terminology used. Use a
dictionary to look up unfamiliar words (definitions are often in the back of the text).
Class Lecture, Student Engagement and Note Taking: The notes packet will aid you in focusing
on key concepts. Come to class prepared to ask questions and engage with the material.
Powerpoint lectures will also highlight important concepts and are useful for test reviews.
 Successful college students have a system. They often; read the text several times (first
just read it, then read it and underline/highlight key points, lastly read and take notes on
key parts and terms), read class notes at least 3 times (same strategy as above), then
write up your notes and review them at least 6 times.
 Write key concepts and terms on 3 x 5 cards and quiz yourself when you have free time.
Exam essay questions: Essay questions for exams will be given out one week ahead of time.
Make an outline of your essay on a 3 x 5 card and use it to study for the exam.
ASK QUESTIONS, if you are in doubt or unsure about something ask!
 If you are having difficulty understanding class material, or are doing poorly on quizzes,
homework, etc. take action EARLY. Check to first make sure you are spending the appropriate
amount of time studying (estimated to be 2 hours outside of class for every hour in class). If
you are having difficulty make an appointment with the instructor, or visit the tutoring center.
Do not wait until the week before the exam to try and learn the material. There are only three
exams in the semester and they each cover a great deal of information. To do well on the
exams you will need to dedicate a certain amount of time each week. Regular attendance is
CRUCIAL to do well.
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How to figure out your grade:
Strategizing in regards to your grade and keeping track of your grade is critical to being a
successful student. It is the student’s responsibility to keep track of their grade in the class. I do
not calculate grades until after finals (so do not ask what your grade is). I hand back exams,
quizzes, assignments in a timely fashion so you can keep track of your own grade. Use the grade
sheet in your syllabus.
To calculate your grade during the semester you will need to determine how many points you have
earned in relationship to how many points are possible at a given time.
Sample: If you want to figure out your grade after the first exam you can see from the
grading page in your syllabus that the maximum points you can have earned is 120 points
Maximum Points Possible
Points that you earned
Exam 1 - 100 pts.
72 pts
Quiz 1 - 10 pts.
6 pts
Quiz 2 - 10 pts.
9 pts
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------120 pts. possible
84 points earned
Take the 84 points you have earned and divide it into the 120 points that were possible and you will
get .70 this means that you are getting a C at this point (70% = C, 80%= B, etc.). However, if you
have read your syllabus you will see that you get to drop one quiz so if you do well on your future
quizzes you will likely want to drop quiz 1.
You can keep track of the Class Points by keeping track of which assignments you completed.
The point value for each assignment will vary depending on how many assignments are given
(both inside and outside of class). If you do all of your assignments, and earn full points for them,
you can leverage yourself in regards to exam scores.
Your syllabus contains a list of all the assignments and the points they are worth. I advise you to
keep a list of the scores on each assignment in your syllabus. I also recommend that you keep all
of your graded assignments until you receive your grade at the end of the semester.
Important Dates
Date to withdraw without a W ___________________________
Date to withdraw with a W ______________________________
It is advised that students determine how they are doing prior to the date to withdraw with a W. If
you are unsure, bring your syllabus, and all your scores and make an appointment to meet with me
in my office.
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EXTRA CREDIT
I do not accept late work, but I do give a few extra credit options for students to make up missed
work. If a student does not miss any assignments they can use the extra credit option to bolster
their quiz and/or exam scores. Extra credit can be turned in anytime prior to the due date (see
your class schedule). I suggest you do not wait until the last minute to turn in extra credit. All extra
credit must be typed.
Extra Credit: Students have the option of turning in two extra credit assignments worth up to 14
points total. Extra credit work can be turned in at anytime during the semester just so long as it is
before the deadline listed in your class schedule.
Option One: Take advantage of one of the services offered on campus; Skills Center,
Library Orientation, Cadena Transfer Center, etc. or attend a campus event. Then type up
a ½ description of what you did and what you learned. You can repeat this option twice for
a total of 4 possible points.
Option Two: Attend a museum, view a film, or read a book or article pertaining to physical
anthropology. This option gives you a chance to further your knowledge of physical
anthropology and it is worth up to 10 points. You can only turn in this option once, for a
total of 10 possible points. Write a three page, typed, double-spaced paper, with three
subheadings:
(1) What you read or observed, be specific as well as descriptive. Where did you
go, what did you read, etc. Make sure to identify your source(s).
(2) Incorporate three concepts or terms learned in class. This should be the bulk
of your paper. Discuss what you did in relationship to what you have learned
in this class this semester. You will earn the highest amount of points for the
way in which relate what you did with terms and concepts from class.
(3) Give your personal analyses and reaction to the event/reading/film. Prior
verbal approval of the instructor is recommended for the Option Two extra
credit assignment. You may also visit a zoo for Option Two, see the
instructions for the zoo option in this reading packet in the primate section.
Physical Anthropology Museum Options: San Diego Museum of Man, Los Angeles
Natural History Museum, and the Los Angeles La Brea Tar Pits.
Zoo Options: Santa Ana Zoo, Los Angeles Zoo, San Diego Zoo, Wild Animal Park
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Chapter One- Once you have read this chapter you should be able to answer the following
questions.
Science- a method of inquiry and a body of knowledge
How does science investigate the world? What methods are used?

How is data collected?

How is data evaluated?

What is an inductive approach?

What is a deductive approach?

What is a fact?

What is a hypothesis?

What is a theory? What is the difference between the way in which the term theory is used in
the natural sciences and the social sciences?
What are the characteristics of science as a body of knowledge?
 Is science absolute in its knowledge?

Is science objective or subjective in its knowledge?

How is scientific knowledge different from beliefs? From pseudoscience?
Do you think this an example of a deductive or inductive approach?: Darwin observed that
life forms that existed in his day were similar to fossils found from earlier times (although they often
were different in some ways) and he also noted that similar life forms existed in different
geographic locations (although they were often different in some ways, their size for instance). He
formed a hypothesis which stated “Life forms change and evolve over time and space.” He was
then left to discern the mechanism that produced these changes. He believed that the
environment played a part in change of life forms over time.
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Do you think this an example of a deductive or inductive approach? Darwin proposed the
following hypothesis, “Life changes over time and space due to environmental differences.”
Darwin stated (after much research) that “populations of species will be different in time and space
due to different environments.” Nature or the environment will “select” which individuals are best
adapted to a particular environment. These individuals, with the traits best suited to the
environment will out-compete others in their population, they will live longer, produce more
offspring and over time the population will change to reflect the “selection” for these traits. A good
hypothesis should always make predictions as to what will be found in the data collection. Darwin
proposed that animals would vary in specific traits in relationship to their environment. An example
would be the way in which foxes vary in their coloring depending on the environment. White
colored foxes are best suited to artic environments and that is where we find them. Brown and
darker colored foxes are best suited to woodland environments and that is where we find them.
Hypothesis testing: According to Karl Popper, a seminal philosopher of science, scientific
hypotheses can never be proven absolutely. Science works best when scientists work to disprove
or falsify their hypothesis. After many, many tests (always corroborated by other scientists) if a
hypothesis is not invalidated then it can be accepted as valid.
Question: Why shouldn’t a good scientist work to prove their hypothesis is true? Why
can’t science make absolute claims about the truth of the natural world?
Be able to discuss and answer the following questions about science:
1. Why can science work to answer questions about the natural world but not about the
supernatural?
2. When science works to develop theories about the natural laws which govern the universe what
assumption does it start with?
3. What is the role of peer review in science? Is it significant or minor?
4. What is the difference between a fact, a hypothesis and a theory (in science)?
5. What is the relationship between facts, hypotheses and theories in science (is one more
important that the other)?
6. Scientific knowledge is said to be objective and not impacted by culture. Is this always
accurate? Can you think of an example in which culture affected science?
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Chapter 2- Be able to answer the following questions after reading chapter 2.
1. What were the scientific understandings that laid the groundwork for Darwin in his development
of natural selection?
2. What are the concepts of essentialism and the great chain of being ?
3. What are the differences between the creation stories of Genesis 1 and Genesis 2? Are these
important, critical differences or minor and insignificant?
4. How did biblical beliefs affect the development of evolutionary theory? What is the difference
between catastrophism and uniformitarianism?
5. What role did comparative anatomy play in the development of evolutionary theory?
***Argument from Design*** This concept is not discussed in your text, read these notes
carefully. The argument from design was formulated by William Paley in 1802 with his watchmaker
analogy. The argument states that the complexity and apparent design in living things (i.e. various
parts all fit together to create a working whole and all parts are needed to make the thing work)
proves that there is a designer of the universe and life on earth. Paley (Natural Theology, 1802)
said that a watch is proof that there is a designer who made the watch. A watch cannot come into
being without a designer, and living beings could not come into being without an intelligent
designer. This intelligent designer can be framed as “god” or as an unknown being. The argument
from design says that all beings and all of their body parts were uniquely created for the purpose
for which they are used. So the wings of a bat were uniquely created for flying. The arms of a
human were uniquely created for the manipulation of objects. The legs of a horse were uniquely
created for walking.
Data from comparative anatomy cast doubts on the argument from design when it was found that
the wings of a bat, the arms of a human and the legs of a horse were very similar in their structure
(undermining the idea of unique creations for specific purposes). Our limbs share a similar bone
structure with bats, horses, lizards and many other animals because our basic body plan was
inherited with modification from a common ancestor. We can track the evolution of limbs with
digits at the end (fingers and toes) to fish hundreds of millions of years ago!
How would the data from comparative anatomy cast doubt on the argument from design?
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The Argument from Design has recently re-appeared under the name Intelligent Design.
Intelligent Design is the newest incarnation of creationism. Creationists work to explain the history
of life through their beliefs instead of through science. They package their beliefs as
pseudoscience. Intelligent Design proponents recently tried to force the teaching of their belief
system in biology classes in Pennsylvania. Nine parents sued the school (they didn’t want their
children being taught the theology of a specific sect of Christianity in a science class) and it went all
the way to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. The judge stated that ID was not science, it was a
belief system and therefore did not belong in a science class.
Creationists often argue that in a democratic, free society we should teach all the theories
about evolution. Does this make sense in a science classroom? Why or why not? Does
this make sense in a philosophy classroom? Why or why not?
Earlier beliefs about the
For each concept make sure Earth and Life on Earth
to know and understand the (data/reasoning used)
data/reasoning used
Age of the Earth- data used to
determine age of the earth
Catastrophism
Modern scientific
understandings of the earth
and life on earth
(data/reasoning used)
Uniformitarianism
Great Chain of Being
Argument from Design
Extinction of life forms
Speciation of life forms
Change of life over time
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Lamark’s Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics or Use/Disuse Hypothesis
a. Life changes over time
b. Plants and animals change in relation to their environment
c. Change in life forms over time is progressive, from imperfect to perfect.
d. The will stimulates subtle fluids and leads to the acquisition of traits. Variation in
individuals is acquired through this will (and fluid). Traits created in an individuals
lifetime are then passed onto their offspring through inheritance.
e. Traits are acquired in an individuals lifetime through use and traits are lost
over time through disuse
f. Environments change over time.
Is Lamarck’s hypothesis scientific? Are parts of it scientific? Is it valid?
Natural Selection: We will be discussing natural selection ALL semester. Make sure you get a
good foundation as to what natural selection is and how it operates. Ask questions 
Natural Selection- definition: a process of evolutionary change based on differential
reproductive success or fitness of individuals within a population.
1. Variation exists in all individuals within a population or species. Individuals within species vary
in their traits such as their size, speed, ability to resist disease, coloring, etc.
Variation is helpful or necessary for natural selection to be able to operate?
What is the key difference between Lamarck’s and Darwin’s view of variation?
2. Competition: In all populations there are more individuals born than the environment can
support. Competition for survival exists between individuals within all populations. Individuals
within the same population compete for survival based on the variable traits that they posses.
Variation in traits allows some individuals to be better at getting food, avoiding predators, avoiding
illness, and therefore live longer and produce more offspring.
Agree or disagree; Competition is basically about who is the biggest, strongest,
smartest. Selection is of individuals within populations, not of populations.
3. The environment or nature selects for or against individuals based on their traits: Individuals
with the “best” traits in a particular environment are “selected” for. The environment (nature)
selects which traits are most advantageous for survival. Depending on the environment it may be
better to be small or large, dark or light in coloring, etc. Selection is evidenced by the differential
reproductive success of individuals within a population.
Selection is at the individual or population level?
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4. Fitness in Darwinian terms is “differential reproductive success.” Differential reproductive
success is when an individual produces more offspring that live to a reproductive age than other
individuals in their population. An individual has been “selected” for when they are more fit than
others in their population (i.e. they produce more offspring than other individuals within their
population).
True or false- Fitness is always about being the biggest, strongest, smartest.
5. Inheritance: The traits that are significant in natural selection are those traits that are passed
on by parents to offspring through genetic inheritance. Offspring inherit their traits from their
biological parents.
True or false- Traits can be acquired in an individuals lifetime and passed on to their
offspring.
6. Environments change: the environment or nature is not static or unchanging. Traits that are
selected for today may not be not be selected for tomorrow or in another environment. The
“environment” includes the climate, predators, food availability, etc.
True or false- The environment is basically just the climate or geographic area in
which an organism lives. The environment is the context within which natural
selection operates.
Natural selection. The individual’s that make up a population change as nature selects for or
against individuals based on the variable traits that they posses. Individuals with positive traits live
and reproduce offspring, those with negative traits die young and do not produce offspring. Over
enough time new species can form.
What evolves, individuals or populations?
How can we determine what is a positive trait? A negative trait?
What is the key difference between Lamarck and Darwin’s view of progress in
change of life over time?
Can you explain how antibiotic resistance occurs in relationship to natural
selection?
Can you explain how pests like mosquito’s can become resistant to pesticides using
natural selection?
Dogs have been subject to artificial selection or domestic breeding by humans for
thousands of years. How can you explain the evolution of dogs from their wolf
ancestors to the breeds we see today?
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As regards Natural Selection, keep in mind:
 Selection operates at the individual level. Selection is for or against individuals based on the
traits that they possess.

It is populations that evolve, not individuals.

Populations change over time as the individuals with the most advantageous traits are selected
for and they produce offspring that inherit their parent’s traits.

Natural Selection is not progressive. It doesn’t lead to more perfect organisms. Natural
selection selects for traits that are “positive” in a particular environment in relation to
reproductive success. Natural selection does not have any particular goal or teleology.
How is natural selection as an explanation different from the argument from design
or intelligent design? Do our bodies seem as if they were designed? Why or why
not? Does the life that exists on earth (historically and currently) seem to be
designed? Why or why not?

Natural Selection is not foolproof. Extinction is the norm. Variation must be present to be
selected for or against. There must be variation for selection to occur. If environmental
change is too sudden or too dramatic natural selection won’t work to keep a population in an
adaptive relationship with it’s environment.
What is the goal of evolution?
What can we predict about the future of the role of natural selection in shaping populations
or species of life forms over time? For instance, what can we predict in regards to the
development of antibiotic resistance in the treatment of AIDS, tuberculosis, staph or MSRA
infections?
So… how does natural selection work to shape populations over time? You will be asked to write
an essay outlining how natural selection works to shape populations over time. How does each
component or aspect of natural selection work to change populations over time? Look up antibiotic
resistance, staph infection or TB, to gain insight into how natural selection works on living
populations over time.
1. What is the role of variation in natural selection? According to Darwin does variation exist in
populations or does variation appear as it is needed?
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2. What is the role of competition in natural selection? Is competition all about individuals fighting
to the death to determine which individual is the most fit? Is competition within the population or
between populations? Who helped Darwin see the significance of competition?
3. What role does the environment play in natural selection? What would happen if the
environment was static and unchanging?
4. What is the role of inheritance in natural selection? Are their some physical traits that aren’t
inherited?
5. What is fitness in Darwinian evolution?
6. What evolves? Individuals? or Populations?
7. Is natural selection progressive (leading to the evolution of more perfect organisms)?
8. According to Park (the author or your text) did Darwin set the stage for a conflict between
religion and science?
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What Darwin Never Saw- Video Questions
1. In the beginning of the video the narrator uses two phrases which are incorrect in their scientific,
biological context and in the way that he uses them. What should he have said?
A. He said “…the finches held the secret to the origin of life.” He should have said
“…the finches held the secret to the origin of _____________________
B. He said “…but it was only a theory.” He should have said
“…but it was only a ______________________.”
2. What are the two species of finches the Grant’s are observing on Daphne Major?
3. The three questions the Grants were working to answer in their observations of the finches
a. Do species compete?
b. Why are some populations so variable?
c. _________________________________________________________________
4. How did the Galapagos Islands (which are fairly recent volcanic islands) become populated with
the finches, plant life and other animals (speculate on this question)?
5. How many species of finches currently inhabit the Galapagos Islands?
6. What specific knowledge do the Grant’s need to document natural selection (think about the
components of natural selection).
-variation
-competition
-inheritance
-environment
-fitness
7. Which finch species do the Grants observe evolving? What trait is the most significant in
impacting their survival?
8. The Grant’s observed two natural selection events. What happened?
9. (lecture) What were the two important things that the Grant’s study of Darwin’s finches
revealed?
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Genetics Notes: This is a general outline of what you need to know for the section on genetics.
To make the best use of this information, read your text, attend class, take notes and use these
sheets as an outline for key concepts and understandings. The section on genetics can often be a
bit overwhelming at first, but if you follow my recommendations you should do well.
When Darwin developed his theory of natural selection he understood the significance of
variation but he did not know where it came from. He knew that sexual reproduction and
inheritance played a role in variation but he didn’t know exactly how (he thought there was some
sort of blending). The study of genetics focuses on how sexual reproduction and inheritance play a
role in variation.
Genetics: the study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next. The study of
genetics informs us as to where variation comes from and how inheritance works.
Brief Overview: Humans (along with all other animals and plant life) are made up of cells. Cells
are the basic unit of life in all living organisms. DNA resides in the nucleus of the cell directing cell
replication (for growth and repair) and protein synthesis. DNA contains the genetic code. The four
DNA bases (cytosine-C, guanine-G, adenine-A, and thymine-T), combine in units of three (codons)
to form amino acids, which then code for the tens of thousands of proteins that comprise a human
being. We are basically made up of proteins (enzymes, hormones, collagen, hemoglobin, are all
proteins).
How Genes Work: Once you have read and studied this section you should know;
Where DNA resides _________________________________________________________
The structure or shape of the DNA molecule ______________________________________
How the bases (A, T, C, and G) hook up __________________________________________
How DNA directs cell replication and protein synthesis.
Cell replication: Is a continual process in the body. It involves DNA directing the
unwinding of the DNA molecule, where enzymes cut the base pairs apart, and new bases
are picked up in the cell. The result (if all goes well) is an exact copy or daughter cell. In
this process adenine hooks up with _________________________ and cytosine hooks up
with_____________________.
Protein Synthesis: starts in a similar way as cell replication does, but the DNA molecule
is only partially unwound. Messenger RNA is assembled against one strand of the
unwound DNA. mRNA transcribes the gene by matching complementary bases to the
exposed coding strand of DNA, except that uracil replaces thymine. mRNA then leaves
the nucleus of the cell and moves to the ribosomes, outside the nucleus of the cell. It is in
the ribosomes that the message is decoded and translated into a protein. Transfer RNA
reads the three letter code. The codon or amino acids are then strung together to make a
protein.
What is the role of DNA? What is the role of RNA?
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If we compare DNA to language we can see understand it in the following way:
DNA language has the following 4 letters; ____________________________________________
DNA words are always _________letters long and they form _______________ or ____________
In the DNA language there are ___________________ words (or amino acids).
DNA sentences create ____________________ with a string of amino acids. There are an
estimated _______________ proteins that make us what we are.
All life on earth is made up of these four DNA bases. The different life forms that exist form are in
part the result of the sequence, quantity and coding of the four DNA bases.
From a Gene to a Trait: Genes are portions of the DNA molecule that code for specific traits or
portions of a trait (specifically proteins, or portions of a protein). Humans have some 25,000
genes. Our genes code for some 90,000 proteins. Each gene resides at a specific location on the
chromosome (the locus) and each individual receives two “genes” or alleles at each location, one
from each parent.
Example: The trait of earlobes is coded for by one gene, but there are two possible
________for earlobes, attached and free hanging. Attached earlobes are when the bottom
of the earlobe is attached to the neck, free hanging earlobes are not attached.
Locus _________________________________________________________________________
Alleles________________________________, there are always _________alleles at each locus
Genotype: _____________________________________________________________________
Phenotype ____________________________________________________________________
Homozygous: __________________________________________________________________
Heterozygous: __________________________________________________________________
Alleles come in various forms and this impacts their expression in the individual
Dominant: _____________________________________________________________
Recessive: ______________________________________________________________
co-dominance: ________________________________________, an example is the __________
blood system
incomplete dominance: occurs when a recessive allele has some phenotypic effect, the
recessive allele is not completely “masked” by the dominant allele (tay sachs is an example)
18
Example: The allele for free hanging earlobes is dominant and the allele for attached earlobes is
recessive. Dominant alleles are shown using capital letters and recessive alleles are shown using
lower case letters. For this trait there are three different genotypes and two possible phenotypes.
Genotype
Phenotype
EE - homozygous dominant
free hanging earlobes
Ee - heterozygous
free hanging earlobes
ee - homozygous recessive
attached earlobes
Genetic Expression: The physical traits that we posses are determined by our genes or a
combination of our genes and the environment.
monogenic traits: __________________________________________________
examplepolygenic traits: ____________________________________________________
examplepleiotropy: __________________________________________________________
exampleHow Inheritance Works: As we learned above, genes (or alleles) come in pairs. When cells
replicate, the result is an exact daughter cell. This process is ______________________. All of
the cells in our body (except the sex cells or gametes) contain all of our genetic information.
Generally our DNA resides in the nucleus of the cell in a long strand but during cell replication and
protein synthesis DNA forms into discrete forms called ________________________________.
We inherit the chromosomes that we posses from our biological parents. Typical humans have 23
_____________ of chromosomes, we get ___________ from each biological parent.
Humans start life as a single cell. With cell division and replication we eventually end up as an
adult human being comprised of some 1,000 billion cells. Cell division and replication of the
somatic cells is responsible for growth and repair of our bodies.
Somatic cells, which comprise the body tissue, muscle, bone, skin, nerves, etc. that make
up our body. Each of our somatic cells contains all _________________pairs of our
chromosomes, for a total of ___________chromosomes.
Mitosis: is cell division of the __________________cells, and the result is two
_______________ daughter cells. Mitosis is an ongoing process in the body.
___________ in the nucleus of the cell, directs this process. Mitosis works for repair and
growth of the nails, hair, bone marrow, etc. which are constantly replaced.
Sex cells or gametes are the cells of reproduction (eggs and sperm). The sex cells
contain only half of our chromosomes (23 total).
Meiosis: is cell division where sex cells are produced (gametes; ___________________&
__________________). During meiosis the cells undergo an extra round of division and
instead of two exact copies being produced as in mitosis, only one set of the twenty-three
chromosomes are left. So, at the end of meiosis the sex cells only contain half of the
individuals chromosomal complement.
19
Question: Why is it critical that the sex cells undergo another round of division? What role does
this extra round of division play in shuffling existing variation?
Meiosis is a powerful source for genetic diversity. In the production of each gamete or sex cell
there is a _____________chance as to which one of the pair of chromosomes an individual passes
onto to their offspring. Meiosis is a powerful source to reshuffle the existing variation. Each human
has some 8 million possible combinations for their offspring.
Punnett Squares: Show the possibilities for offspring (inheritance). The outside of the punnett
square reflects the ____________________the parents posses for a particular trait. The inside of
the square reflects the possibilities for their offspring’s _______________. During meiosis there is
a __________ possibility as to which allele each parent passes onto their offspring.
Example: A man with attached ear lobes marries a women with free hanging ear lobes
(heterozygous). What are the possibilities for their children? (free hanging alleles are
dominant and attached alleles are recessive). Which alleles represent the male and which
represent the female in this example?
E
e
Ee
ee
e
Ee
ee
e
Offspring: there is a 50% possibility the children will have attached ear lobes and a 50%
possibility they will have free hanging ear lobes
Rules of Inheritence
Segregation: during meiosis chromosomes segregate (and therefore allele pairs segregate)
There is a ___________chance for a parent to pass on either _________________
(this is what is represented in the punnett squares, you are displaying the
_______________chance for what the offspring will receive from their parents)
Independent Assortment: genes on separate chromosomes are inherited ________________. It
is chromosomes that segregate during meiosis not individual genes
Linkage: genes on same chromosome are inherited ___________________, because it is
_______________________________that segregate during meiosis
Crossing Over: exception to linkage, during meiosis portions of chromosome pairs break off and
cross over and are then recombined (recombination)
Variation is increased through: Segregation, independent assortment, crossing over &
recombination
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Chromosomes are ____________________________________________________________
that reside in the nucleus of the cell. Generally DNA resides in a long strand inside the cell's
nucleus but as the cell undergoes division the DNA becomes ___________________ and
separates into chromosomes. Each species has a specific number of chromosomes. All typical
humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 total (23 from each parent).
Autosomes: chromosomes ________to ___________. They contain most all of the
genetic info for our physical characteristics except ___________________determination.
Sex Chromosomes: ______________ & _________________.
 Typical females have an _______& ______ sex chromosomes and thus have a
matching pair for all of their chromosomes. The X chromosome is large and codes for
__________________________ traits.
 Typical males have an__________& __________ sex chromosome. Therefore males
do not have a matching pair for their sex chromosomes. The Y chromosome is small
and for the most part codes for ___________________. Since males do not have a
matching pair of sex chromosomes this makes them more susceptible to traits that
reside on the X chromosome.
Sex linked traits: Sex linked traits reside on either the _______or the ________ chromosome.
Most sex linked traits reside on the ______chromosome (remember it carries many genes and
functions more like an autosome). When you are working to determine the possibilities for
offspring traits on a sex linked trait you need to put the sex chromosomes on the outside of the
punnett square.
Example: Trait under study is red green color blindness which is an X linked recessive
disorder. A male with red green color blindness marries a female who is heterozygous for
the trait. What are the possibilities for their children?
Xr
Y
XR
Xr
XR Xr
XR Y
Xr Xr
Xr Y
Children: There is a 50% probability that their children will be red green colorblind.
Question: Why does the man have only one allele for this trait?
Things to keep in mind
 During meiosis parents pass on 50% of their chromosomal complement
 Punnett squares are used to calculate the possibilities for inheritance. The alleles the parents
posses are on the outside and the possibilities for offspring’s alleles are on the inside.
 Offspring can express traits not expressed in parents (due to recessive alleles)
 Humans have pairs of all autosomes (22 from each parent, 44 total), females have a pair of
sex chromosomes (two X’s, one from each parent), males have one X and one Y chromosome
(males more likely to get conditions passed on X chromosome)
21
Human Genome: The completion of the Human Genome was an incredible accomplishment. The
race to complete it involved many countries around the world, and also a competition between
public and private interests. The completion of the genome means that we now know the
sequence of the four bases for our species, Homo sapiens. It has lead to many new
understandings and it has also left us with much more to learn. As you read this section make sure
you can answer the following questions;
1. What did the completion of the human genome reveal about junk DNA? Is some
___________% of our DNA actually junk?
2. What is the difference between coding and non-coding DNA?
3. How can humans have 25,000 genes and some 90,000 proteins? What did role does
junk DNA play in this situation?How many genes do we have?
Characteristics of the DNA Code
The Code is universal- The same DNA code is present in all life on earth. Humans share some
200 genes with bacteria, this reflects a common ancestor with bacteria. Some 75% of our genes
are shared with birds, we shared a common ancestor with birds some 310 million years ago. We
share ______________ our DNA code with chimpanzees and bonobo’s.
The Code is triplet- Each amino acid is specified by a sequence of 3 bases
The Code is continuous without pauses- There is no separation from one amino acid (codon) to
another, so if a base is deleted then entire frame is moved, drastically altering the “message”
downstream for other successive codons.
The Code is redundant- There are 20 amino acids, and 4 DNA bases which makes for 64
possible triplets (with 3 stop messages), so there are 61codons specifying 20 amino acids
o Many amino acids are coded for by more than one codon- (valine= UAA, UAG, UGA)
o Redundancy helps if there is a change or mutation in the code it makes it less likely
there will be drastic consequences. Although recent research is showing that a
change in a base may not change the amino acid it may change how the protein is
expressed, how fast a protein is made, etc.
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Nature/Nurture Debate
An understanding of the nature/nurture debate requires knowledge of genetics and critical thinking
skills. The nature/nurture debate has been ongoing for millennia. This is a philosophical and
scientific debate with profound, practical, everyday consequences. If we attribute traits solely to
genetics, and we see some traits as problematic (i.e. aggression) than society may work to stop
individuals deemed too aggressive from breeding (the USA had a eugenics program where
individuals deemed unfit were forcibly sterilized from the 1920’s till the 1970’s). If we attribute traits
to our environment or culture than we may work to provide a better environment for individuals (i.e.
fund programs such as Head Start for preschoolers).
What do Genes Do?
Genes code for _________________ or _________________ or portions of a ________________
or a _____________________. Genes give rise to our physical features, although our physical
features are influenced by our ___________________________________ (the food we eat, levels
of exercise, etc). Some genes code for hormones, and hormones affect feelings to a degree (and
the experience of feelings is very much influenced by culture and context). To what degree this
affects behaviors is a matter of debate.
The Nature argument states that our nature, our basic temperament is due to our _____________.
The Nurture argument states that our basic temperament is due to our _____________________.
Most anthropologists see a feedback loop between our biology and our culture. This means, as
Park states, we see that we have general potentials from our biology, but we our not committed to
any one path or outcome. One area of debate is over the concept of instincts. Do humans have
any instincts…?
What do you need to evaluate this debate? To critique the nature debate you need to look
at the following.
1. To state that genes lead to behaviors you first need to be able to find the _________________
and draw a direct link between gene and the behavior. This works great with monogenic traits, but
it isn’t as easy with pleotropic and polygenic traits.
2. You need to define the ________________________. Some of the behaviors that have been
labeled genetic include; violence, infidelity, alcoholism, etc. How would you come up with an
operational definition for these behaviors?
3. You would need to rule out the environment as playing a role. The influence of the environment
starts in the ___________________ and continues until the day that we die
To critique the nurture debate you need to look at the same factors. If you state that we are
only a product of our environment you need to draw links between specific cultures and
environments and specific behaviors. You would expect to find fairly divergent behaviors between
different human populations. What do we see in human cultures around the world? How similar or
different are humans in cultures around the world? Take a cultural anthropology class to learn
more….. 
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Processes of Evolution
In general Evolution is defined as change in allele frequencies in a population over time and it
implies that all life on earth has descended with modification from earlier forms.
Question: In your own words can you explain what descent with modification means?
How does descent with modification explain the similarities between the limbs of horses,
lizards, bats and humans? How would the argument from design or intelligent design
explain the similarities in limb structure?
What are species? What criteria are used to differentiate between species?
1. ____________________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________________
Niche: the environment and the adaptive response of the organism within the environment
Mutation: ______________________________________________________________________
Mutation is the ultimate source of all __________ genetic variation.
The effects of mutation can be; ________________________, negative, and positive
The two types of mutations are ___________________________ and chromosomal.
The causes of mutations include ___________________________ and internal processes
(especially as we age). Mutations are ______________________ but they occur at a regular rate.
A mutation is rare for any given ______________________.
Question: What are common misconceptions in regards to mutations?
FYI: If you’re interested in this topic you might want to read “Mutants” by Armand Leroi.
Gene Flow: ___________________________________________________________________
A population is where you are most likely to get your __________________from . Populations
form due to environmental and cultural reasons.
Gene flow works to __________________ variation or differences between populations and
increases or introduces variation _____________________ populations.
Question: If gene flow were stopped between populations within a species what effect do
you think it would have?
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Gene Drift: ___________________________________________________________________
Gene Drift can only change allele frequencies to any great degree in _______________________
populations.
There are several different aspects of Gene Drift.
Gamete sampling and sampling error: Gamete sampling is what happens during
________________________ In small populations allele frequencies can fluctuate dramatically,
and sampling _________________________ results. In ______________________ populations
sampling error is eliminated.
Question: How is sampling error eliminated in small populations but not in large
populations? How can gene drift result in dramatic, random fluctuations in allele
frequencies?
Fission/founder effect: This occurs when there is a splitting of a population, or breaking away of a
portion of population (___________________________), and a new _______________________
population is formed. The founder population is usually genetically from original population.
Examples of this include (get examples from your text):
______________________________________________________________________________
Bottlenecks: This occurs when there is a _____________________________ reduction in the
population. Bottlenecks occur for various reasons. Environmental upheaval or
_________________________________________ are common causes.
Question: Do you think that bottleneck events were common or uncommon in early
hominin evolution? Would bottleneck events, and gene drift in general, work to change
populations directionally or randomly?
Debates in physical anthropology, and evolutionary studies include looking at which processes of
evolution are the biggest movers of evolution. Review the information on natural selection,
mutation, gene drift and gene flow and work to determine which processes you think could change
allele frequencies in large numbers (our working definition of evolution).
Natural selection- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
Mutation- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
Gene flow- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
Gene drift- can it change allele frequencies dramatically or to a small degree?
25
Chapter 5- Origin of Species
Evolution ______________________________________________________________
What are the 4 processes that can account for a change in allele frequencies over time?
1.______________________________________ 2. ___________________________________
3. ______________________________________ 4. ___________________________________
Microevolution: small-scale evolutionary change, detectable in living populations
Macroevolution: large-scale evolutionary change, speciation, generally detectable in the fossil
record (depends on the reproductive cycle of the organism)
Basic Unit of Evolution: Species-species are by definition reproductively isolated from other
species. What prevents inter-breeding between species?_____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Speciation can be evidenced by the development of a __________________________________
Speciation occurs when a reproductive isolating mechanism exists. Reproductive isolating
mechanisms prevent the breeding and/or production of fertile offspring.
List at least three different types of reproductive isolating mechanisms.
1. _________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
How does speciation occur?
Generally speciation occurs when populations are in different environments. For speciation to
occur generally a population within a species must be reproductively isolated with no
_________ ___________ occurring. The elimination of _________ ___________ provides the
opportunity for speciation. Speciation requires that the other processes of evolution, __________,
_____________________________, and _________________________________________ act
on the population. Over enough time this can lead to _____________________________.
26
Speciation has been found to also occur when species are in the same environment. What
example does Park list in your text of species evolving in the same environment?
____________________________________ What reproductive isolating mechanism allowed for
the species to evolve in the same environment? _______________________________________
What else can spur speciation? _____________________________________________________
The Evolution of Life’s Diversity- Our Family Tree
There are ____________________ named species in the world today. It is estimated that there
are some ______________________________ species on earth. Life on earth is incredibly
diverse and plentiful. The fossil record reveals that speciation, adaptive radiation, extinction and
mass extinctions are common. Despite all of the diversity of life forms on earth, all life forms share
the same 4 DNA bases, this leads scientists to assume that life on earth had a ________________
origin.
Adaptive radiation is one process by which life forms on earth have evolved and spread out in
great numbers. Adaptive radiation is the ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
Give at least two examples of adaptive radiation: ______________________________________
Adaptive radiation is fostered in three general situations:
1. When an environment has no similar, ________________________ species.
2. When an ___________________________ event empties the environment of competition.
3. When a new group of species are adaptively ________________________ (as opposed to
specialized) and are able to successfully live in new niches and displace other species.
Species are either specialized in their adaptation or___________________________________.
An example of a species that is specialized is ________________________________. An
example of a species that is generalized is _____________________________________.
27
Did Darwin’s finches adaptively radiate? ________________________________________
List at least three different adaptations that Darwin’s finches have (related to their survival)
1_________________________, 2_______________________, 3___________________
What event allowed for the adaptive radiation of mammals and therefore primates?
_____________________________________________________________________.
Are Primates specialized or generalized? Are prosimian’s generalized or specialized?
Which group of animals is more generalized; monkeys or promimians?
The Shape of the Family Tree- The Modes of Evolution
Darwinian Gradualism- Darwin thought that populations of organisms change and evolve at a
slow, steady pace, pushed by natural selection. Speciation comes about at a slow, steady pace
with populations gradually changing over time. Evolution is viewed as a ___________________
with long, graceful branches. However not all species show this slow, gradual change.
Punctuated Equilibrium: developed by Stephen Gould and Niles Eldridge states that species will
remain __________________________ for long periods of time and then a small, isolated, fringe
___________________________will undergo rapid _____________________ brought on by gene
__________________ and natural selection. Punctuated equilibrium shows evolution as a
_________________ with a lot of short, twiggy branches.
What data could be used to determine which model is accurate for life on earth?
What are the key differences in the tree and bush models________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
28
Evolution, Creationism and Pseudoscience
Evolution is the central concept in the field of ____________________. Evolution is considered to
be a fact, a hypothesis and a __________________in the natural sciences. It has been tested
over and over again and while there are many debates in regards to the details of how evolution
works there is no debate in science as to the fact or theory of evolution to explain biological
change.
Why is a knowledge of science, specifically evolution, important to you as an individual and
important to us as a society? Think of at least one example from your reading or lecture.
What is the key difference between science and belief as ways of knowing about the world?
In what ways is creationism (or intelligent design) a pseudoscience ?
According to Park are there two sides to the evolution debate in science?
Park discusses Intelligent Design and points out two big problems with this pseudoscientific idea
1.
2.
The most recent Supreme Court case involving Intelligent Design was in Dover, Pennsylvania.
The school board voted to mandate that biology teachers make a statement in class that critiqued
Evolutionary Theory and presented Intelligent Design as a viable alternative. Nine parents sued
the school district because they were not teaching their children science. The case went all the
way to the state Supreme Court and the judge ruled that Intelligent Design was pseudoscience, not
science. Judge Jones stated the following; ID is not science, it is religion and it does not belong in
science classrooms. His 139 page ruling included the following observations:
1. ID relies on supernatural explanations for natural phenomena, this is not science
2. ID does not rely on testing, testing is essential to scientific knowledge
3. ID relies on the same “contrived dualism” as creation-science, namely suggesting that if they
can refute all or part of Evolutionary Theory this means that ID is accurate.
4. ID’s “irreducible complexity” argument is an attempted negative against evolution, not a proof of
design.
Question: What is the relationship between the argument from design and intelligent design? Is
the argument from design a scientific hypothesis? Why or why not?
Questions: What is comparative anatomy? What does comparative anatomy reveal
about different life forms on earth?
29
History of Life on Earth- Overview
Geological history is backdrop for life on earth, geological time scale divided into eras of biological and geological
activity that stretch over long periods of time, use boundaries to mark periods of devastation or mass extinctions, eras
subdivided into periods, w/in periods epochs
MYA- BP
4,600-2,500(4.6 - 2.5 bya)
3000- (3 bya)
Geological Era
Archean
Periods
Precambrian
Proterozoic
Precambrian
Paleozoic
Precambrian
550 mya
Cambrian
505
Ordovician
435
Silurian
410
Devonian
360
Carboniferous
290
Permian
240
205
138
Mesozoic
Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous
65
Cenozoic
Paleocene
Mass Extinctions
545mya mass
extinction- meteor?
440mya- mass
extinction
370mya most fish,
invertebrates die off
250mya-95% of
marine species
extinct
Tertiary epoch
65mya- mass
extinction event
54
38
25
5
1.65
Eocene
Oligocene
Miocene
Pliocene
Pleistocene
.01
Recent
Quaternary
epoch
Life Forms
3 BYA geological tumult died down, unicellular
organisms everywhere, some photosynthesis,
starts changing atmosphere, adding oxygen
1.4-1.9bya find eukaryotic cells, 1.2 bya
multicellular life (red algae-Canada), Siberia 1 bya
Prior to 600-700mya record sparse, intense
heat/pressure destroyed most remains
Ancestors of all modern animal groups appear +
formation of many now extinct species
Seas- algae, invertebrates, 1st vertebrates (jawless
fishes)
First land organisms, plants (had stems, no leaves,
roots) & animals resembling scorpions
Age of fishes; invertebrates, fish w/bone, cartilage,
land mostly barren-scorpions, millipedes,
invertebrates
Age of Amphibians: sea animals spending more
time on land
1st 4 limbed animals- mixed adaptations for water &
land-Acanthostega (fin on tail like fish, hips/legs/
toes, ribcage not strong enough to support internal
organs out of water, but footprints showed brief
land ventures, flat feet to move thru water w/8 toes)
earth- insects, plants flourished on land, huge
ferns, Coal Age (produced coal of today)
Mass extinctions- 95% of terrestrial, sea organisms
reptiles gone- egg laying animals appearCotylosaurs gave rise to dinosaurs, mammals,
reptiles, birds
First mammals
Dinosaurs everywhere
Flowering plants spread in diversity, triceratops
flourished (cockroaches of cretaceous)
Extinction of dinosaurs other marine life &
mammals proliferate - diverse hoofed mamals,
many marsupials, egg-laying monotremes
(ancestor to platypus), placental mammals appear,
primate like animals appear
First primates- primitive prosimians
Anthropoid evolution
Radiation of early apes
First hominids, first members of genus Homo
Evolution of genus Homo
Humans develop agriculture, industry, explore
space
Stephen Gould perspective: With the appearance of each new type of animal we call it “The Age of Fish, The Age of
Dinosaurs” and don’t discuss that many of the previous forms of life in existence continue to exist and often proliferate.
For instance “the most salient feature of life has been the stability of its bacterial mode from the beginning of the fossil
record until today and, with little doubt into all future time so long as the earth endures. This is truly the “age of
bacteria” as it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be.” Bacteria occupy a wider domain of environments and
span a broader range of biochemistries than any other group. They are adaptable, indestructible, and astoundingly
diverse.
30
Brief History of Life on Earth- For this section you need to know the following:
1. What do we know about the origin of life?
2. Does evolutionary theory explain the origin of life on earth? Why or why not?
3. What is the approximate age of the earth?
4. What is the approximate age of the oldest life on earth?
5. What type of life is the oldest life on earth?
6. When do we first find multi-cellular organisms in the fossil record?
7. What is the significance of sexual reproduction in the evolution of life on earth?
8. What is the Cambrian Explosion?
9. What do we find in the fossil record with fossils from the Cambrian Explosion?
10. When did mammals first evolve?
11. When did primates first evolve?
12. What occurred just before the adaptive radiation of mammals and primates?
13. What are the three themes that Park states are important to remember (chapt. 6 summary)
1. ______________________ are the dominant species on earth, although we are the
_________ kids on the block, and we have not proven ourselves as successful if we use
__________________ as the criterion.
2. The only real ______________ is the _____________ of the universe, everything else
has been rearrangements of what has already existed
3. What is the most humbling thing?
31
Mammals
Evolved some 220 million years ago from a reptilian ancestor. For most of their history (220 mya
ago until 65 mya ago) mammals were small rodent type creatures. Mammals underwent
____________________ ____________________ some 65 million years ago. The adaptive
radiation of mammals coincided with the demise of the dinosaurs. Today mammals are an
incredibly diverse group of animals from the hog nosed bat (the size of a bumblebee) to the largest
mammal, the blue whale (up to 100 feet long).
Thought Question: Why do you think that mammals remained static for so
long (from 220 mya to 65 mya)? What is the relationship between the adaptive
radiation of mammals and the demise of the dinosaurs?
Animals are placed in the mammal class when they share many of the same traits. Mammalian
traits include; milk secreting mammary glands, hairy bodies, large braincases relative to body size,
internal fertilization, and a constant body temperature. There are three basic types of mammals;
monotremes, marsupials and _______________________________. Primates are a
_________________________mammal.
o Monotremes: egg-laying mammals (duck billed platypus, spiny anteater)
o Marsupials: pouched animals, embryo finishes development in mothers pouch.
o Placentals: nourish the embryo with a placenta
 There are 18 orders of placental mammals: dogs, cats, whales, hippos,
primates
 Placental mammals are differentiated by dental patterns, specialized limbs,
toes, claws, hooves, complexity of nervous system
Primate Order: Primates are a part of the mammal class. Primates originated some 65 mya and
underwent adaptive radiation some 55 mya. There are four broad groupings of primates:
o Prosimians: these are the most primitive primates, they originated some 65 mya,
o Monkeys: old world monkeys & new world monkeys
o Apes: lesser or smaller and great apes
o Hominins: humans & human-like ancestors
Thought Question: What do you think was going on with the environment as primates
underwent adaptive radiation?
32
Physical Anthropology
Name_____________________
PBS Series- Great Transformations Video and Lecture Questions
1. What attributes of whales qualify them as a mammal? Can you make a case to classify whales
in another taxonomic class?
2. What is unusual about whales in comparison to other mammals?
3. What specific changes have whales undergone transitioning from a terrestrial animal to an
aquatic animal? What vestigial structures have whales retained?
4. Where have a large number of whale bones been found? Why is this site unexpected? What
knowledge would you need to work to find whale bones from 50mya, 45mya, 40mya?
5. What is a transitional form? How many transitional forms have been identified to date in the
evolution of whales?
6. What is a tetrapod?
7. Which scenario is accurate? A) fish became terrestrial and then there was a selection for
limbs/legs, B) fish developed limbs/legs and then became terrestrial
8. What is the goal of evolution?
9. What is paleontology?
10. What is the Cambrian explosion? What is found in the fossils of the Cambrian explosion? Do
we know if the Cambrian explosion was really an explosion?
11. What does evolution tinker with?
33
Testing Evolution, Sexual Selection and Hardy Weinberg
Evolution is defined as ___________________________________________________________.
When we see change in a population over time we know that it can be attributed to any or all of the
following process ___________________________________, ____________________________,
___________________________________, and/or ____________________________________
Natural selection explains directional or random change in relationship to the environment Natural
selection is very powerful and can change allele frequencies dramatically over time. Gene Drift is
also a big mover of allele frequencies, albeit randomly. Mutation works to introduce variation and
gene flow keeps populations similar, unless it is eliminated.
One thing that puzzled Darwin for quite a bit of time was how to explain the differences between
females and males? If we look at the animal kingdom we can see mild to dramatic differences in
physical size, traits and features between females and males. After time Darwin developed the
concept of sexual selection. Sexual selection is an aspect of natural selection.
Sexual Selection is the selection of mates based on phenotypic (physical) traits. Sexual
reproduction acts differently on females and males because the processes of reproduction operate
differently in each sex. The strategies and investment in reproductive success is different for
males and females (and different depending on the species).
Females have a limited number of large eggs. Females make a huge investment in offspring, both
during pregnancy and in raising their offspring to adulthood.
Female Choice: Sexual selection states that Females make Choices in regards to mates. The
best strategy for a female is to be choosy mater. They need to select the male with the best
genetic material so that they can be reproductively successful. This choice does not have to be
conscious or deliberate. Females just need to select the males with the best genes for
reproductive success.
Give an example of female choice__________________________________________________
Males have a lot of small, sperm. Males generally make a very brief, limited investment in the
production of offspring. In many species males deposit their sperm and move on.
Male Competition: The best strategy for males is to have as many mates as possible. Males
often compete with other males for access to females and for the control of females.
Give an example of male competition ________________________________________________
Keep in mind that natural selection explains why one individual survives and passes on their genes
to the next generation while another individual dies. Sexual selection explains differences between
females and males within a species, and it is an aspect of natural selection.
Questions:
1. When females engage in choice of mates do they know which traits are genetically positive and will
increase fitness? If they don’t know how does this work?
2. In Darwin’s time male competition was immediately accepted as valid while female choice was ignored
and minimized. Why do you think that was the case? Isn’t science supposed to be objective?
34
Hardy Weinberg Overview
1. Evolution (definition):
2. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Formula
This formula is a tool researchers use to document evolution. Researchers go into a population, select a
trait for study and determine the genotype frequencies for the trait within the population. These “observed
genotype frequencies” are then plugged into the Hardy-Weinberg formula (p2 + 2pq + q2=1) and the
formula gives the “expected genotype frequencies” for this population under a hypothetical condition of no
change. These “expected genotype frequencies” are hypothetical because populations are always being
impacted to some degree by at least some of the processes of evolution. A comparison between the
“observed” and “expected” genotype frequencies shows if the population is undergoing change (which they
almost always are) and allows researchers to speculate as to which processes of evolution are affecting the
population.
3. The Hardy Weinburg Equilibrium formula (using the observed genotype frequencies) gives the expected
genotype frequencies in a population in a hypothetical condition of no change. Why are these “expected”
genotype frequencies of no change said to be hypothetical (analyze this question in relationship to each
process of evolution)?
4. Steps to use the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium formula
 Determine the OBSERVED GENOTYPES for all individuals (3 options: homozygous dominant,
heterozygous, homozygous recessive)
 Calculate the OBSERVED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES for all individuals (divide the total for each
genotype into the total number of individuals in the population for the three genotype frequencies)
 Calculate the total number of dominant alleles and the total number of recessive alleles for the
population and then calculate the ALLELE FREQUENCIES for both the dominant and recessive alleles
(dividing the total number of each type of allele into the total number of alleles for the population)
 Plug the allele frequencies into the Hardy-Weinberg formula. Use “p” to represent the dominant allele
frequency and “q” to represent the recessive allele frequency.
Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium formula: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
 Your figures must add up to 1, to represent all possibilities.
 The resulting numbers will give you the EXPECTED GENOYPE FREQUENCIES
p² = AA (homozygous dominant) 2 (p)(q) = Aa (heterozygous) q² = aa (homozygous recessive)
 Plug the EXPECTED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES into your table and compare the expected
genotype frequencies with the observed genotype frequencies. Remember the expected genotype
frequencies are what you would expect to find if the population was not undergoing any change
5. What can the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium model tells us? Whether or not change is occurring.
6. We can also speculate for EACH process of evolution. Think what information we need to be able to
speculate as to how allele frequencies can change over time (in relationship to each process)?
 Mutation

Gene Flow

Gene Drift

Natural Selection

Sexual Selection
35
Hardy Weinburg Overview- It is understand that allele frequencies will remain static in a
population unless the processes of evolution cause them to change. In the Hardy Weinberg
problems each process of evolution (mutation, gene flow, gene drift, natural selection and sexual
selection) is evaluated to determine if it is likely responsible for some or all of the change in allele
frequencies in a population. As you work the problems use the notes below to aid you. Keep in
mind the following; 1) change in allele frequencies can be caused by several or all of the
processes, 2) you are only SPECULATING for each process, 3) only one trait at a time is studied.
Mutation: “random change in the genetic code” it’s spontaneous and occurs at a regular rate. It
introduces variation to be selected for or against. Mutations are rare for any given locus. Mutation
is always going on but it cannot change allele frequencies more than 1%.
Gene flow “random exchange of alleles between populations. It introduces variation into
populations but doesn’t change allele frequencies more than 1%. Gene flow can be stopped with
geographic isolation or reproductive isolating mechanisms (or partially by cultural barriers in
humans). When you are speculating for gene flow ask “is the population reproductively isolated?”
Gene drift “random fluctuation of alleles from one generation to the next” (think meiosis and
punnett squares). Gene drift is always occurring, but it can only lead to big changes in allele
frequencies in populations under 100 (sampling error, gamate sampling). In large populations,
sampling error is eliminated and there cannot be large changes in allele frequencies. When you
are speculating for gene drift the first question to ask is “what size is the population”?
Natural selection “selection based on differential reproductive success” can lead to big change
allele frequencies. Selection only occurs for traits that impact reproductive fitness, the environment
(niche) is key. Questions should center around the trait, the environment and fitness. Speculate
with questions such as; How does the trait impact fitness of the individual in the particular niche of
the individual? Is there likely a selection for or against the trait in relationship to the environment
and fitness?
Sexual selection “selection of mates based on phenotypic traits” selection is always taking place
based on phenotypic differences. There are two aspects to sexual selection. Female choice
involves females making a choice of mates based on the traits a male possess. If females make a
choice in regards to a trait that is an honest indicator of genetic health than they will be more fit.
Male competition involves males competing against each other in relationship to female choice.
As you speculate with sexual selection ask the following questions; How does this trait affect
female choice? How does this trait affect male competition? To what degree would this trait affect
selection of mates?
36
Hardy Weinberg Sample problem:
The Nacirema have a population of 98 individuals. They live in a secluded valley that is accessible
only to travelers on foot. Visitors must hike for three days through rugged terrain to reach the
Nacirema (they are rarely visited by anyone.) The Nacirema subsist by foraging for foods that
grow naturally in the environment, hunting for small animals and diving for clams andshrimp (these
are high status foods). Physical anthropologist Rosa Rodriguez and her research assistants are
the first visitors the Nacirema have had in 3 years. Rosa examines the entire population to
determine their genotypes for ear wax. As you recall ear wax comes in two forms, wet, brown,
sticky and dry, gray and brittle, the dry ear wax is inherited as a recessive. Ear wax was chosen as
a trait for study because the Nacirema really do not like the wet, sticky variety and they want to
know what is going on with their population. The Nacirema find the wet, sticky earwax gross and it
is hard to keep their kids ears clean. Rosa finds 27 individuals with dry ear wax and 36 individuals
who are heterozygous for the trait and 35 individuals who are homozygous dominant.
genotype
number of
individuals
observed
genotype
frequencies
expected
genotype
frequencies
total number
of dominant
alleles
total number
of recessive
alleles
EE
Ee
ee
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
What can we speculate as to what is happening in this population. For EACH process of
evolution SPECULATE as to whether or not the process can be responsible for some or all
of the change in allele frequencies in the population
Mutation
Gene Flow
Gene Drift
Natural Selection
Sexual Selection
37
Tables for Hardy Weinberg Sample Problems
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
38
Tables for Hardy Weinberg Sample Problems
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
genotype
# of individuals
observed genotype
frequencies
expected genotype
frequencies
1.00
1.00
total # number of
Dominant alleles
total # of
Recessive alleles
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles
p=
q = frequency of recessive alleles
q=
Expected genotype frequencies: p² + 2(p)(q) + q² = 1
Is change occurring in this population?
For each process speculate “can this process be responsible for some or all of the change
in allele frequencies?” (List each process and speculate for each individually)
39
Taxonomic Categorization
Anthropology is the holistic study of humans. A holistic study of humans includes using the
comparative approach. To compare and contrast the human primate with ________
____________primates.
Humans- Unique in kind or Different by degree? One overriding question for this section is to
what degree and in what aspects are humans unique in kind or just different by degree in
comparison to other primates. This question can be looked at in a variety of ways. We can
compare and contrast primates physically, genetically, socially, and behaviorally.
Physically: Non-human primates are physically similar to the human primate in many ways. This
is why monkeys and apes are used in medical research. In your text Park looks at different
aspects of primates; the___________________, movement, reproduction, intelligence and
behavior patterns. Read this section and note the similarities and differences between primates.
Keep in mind the 5 broad categories of primates as you read through this section: prosimians,
________________________________, old world monkeys, smaller apes, and the ____________
________________.
Why do we classify primates into 5 broad groups?
What criteria is used to physically categorize primates?
Genetically: Comparisons between chimps and humans reveals that upwards of _____________
of our genetic code is identical. In fact we are more similar genetically to chimps than chimps are
to gorillas. A mutation that occurred some 2 mya has been found in humans. This mutation
regulates jaw size which affected the space available in the cranium and is also seen as being
related language. Some see this one mutation as being responsible for the subsequent differences
between humans and chimpanzees and bonobo’s.
How similar or different are humans to chimpanzees and bonobos?
What is the significance of the genetic relatedness of humans and chimps and
bonobo’s?
Socially: Primates are ______________________animals. This means that we live and operate
in social groups. As we cover primates you will find many similarities between us and other
primates. We recognize individuals, and have ________________________ hierarchies that we
constantly negotiate. Read your text and Annual Edition articles to gain further insights into
primate social behaviors.
In what ways are humans and nonhuman primates similar or different socially?
Behaviorally: As we engage in the study of non-human primates we will see how certain physical
features as well as different environments affect the behaviors of primates. Primates have different
features that affect reproductive patterns and mate selection and mating behaviors. How intelligent
are other primates? All of the great apes have been taught to use computers and sign language to
communicate. Researchers believe that the great apes have a sense of self that other primates
don’t have.
Class lecture- What is theory of mind?
40
Taxonomic Classifications
“People impose order on their social universe by classifying it…but how we classify is not based on
nature, but is a construction of our social minds”
Jonathan Marks
The human brain is clearly a classification device par excellence. We constantly work to classify
the world around us, both consciously and/or unconsciously? The culture that we are raised in tells
us what to focus on in regards to categorization.
Jonathan Marks, a physical anthropologist, puts forth three important things to consider as we go
over taxonomic classifications. One, he notes that we make sense of our place in the universe by
the ways in which we classify it. Two, our classifications are not necessarily derived from nature.
And lastly, he notes that even when we use nature as a basis, our classifications encode cultural
information. Classifications are ideally said to be objective or subjective? Are human
classifications scientifically and objectively based or subjective and cultural based (including social,
economic, and political influences)?
There are two major scientific classification system used today. Traditional _____________
taxonomic classification and _________________________.
Traditional Linnaean Taxonomic system: This system categorizes life forms based on present
day _____________________ and differences, the adaptation of the organism to its environment
(niche), and it gives us “relative” evolutionary relationships.
Cladistics: This classification system looks at how long ago a species shared a common ancestor
with another species, it gives us evolutionary relationships utilizing ____________ derived traits
and genetic comparison. Shared derived traits are those traits that two or more groups of
organisms. A phenotypic feature that is not found in other groups is used to look at evolutionary
relationships. The trait selected must be shared between the two groups and it is assumed the
feature is inherited from a shared ancestry. _____________________ comparison, using DNA is
used as well to determine evolutionary relationships.
Taxonomic Classifications are Problematic: The two different systems lead to different
classifications (cladistics is preferred in anthropology). Genetic analysis still a new field and
cultural, and political issues often confuse classifications. Lastly there are those who emphasize
similarities, the ____________________, and those who emphasize differences, the
_________________.
What do you think the term biological continuum means? Does it imply discrete
differences between species?
41
Primates: In this section we will be comparing and contrasting nonhuman primates physically and
socially with each other and with the human primate. For the primate section you will need to know
the five major groupings of nonhuman primates (listed below) and the key differences between
them. You will also need to know key features of all of the great apes.
1. Prosimians are the most primitive and most specialized or generalized of the primates? The
are very marginalized today, living mostly in Madagascar. Physically prosimians are the most
different from the other primates. They have a wet ___________________, are often nocturnal,
have a ________________ on one digit, and have __________________glands. Prosimians
include lemurs and lorises.
Question: Why is there a taxonomic debate over the classification of tarsiers?
What are the key points in the debate over the classification of tarsiers?
2. New World Monkeys (NWM): NWM’s reside in (geographic area) ______________________
The environment that they live in is mostly ____________________________________________.
NWM have _________________________ tails, they have little to no sexual _________________
and females do not show _________________________________. Their dental formula is
2-1-3-3 (incisors, canine, pre-molars, molars),
Question: What traits of new world monkeys likely impact their behaviors? What
are the similarities and differences between NWM and OWMs?
3. Old World Monkeys (OWM): OWM’s reside in (geographic area) ___________________
OWM are both arboreal and ________________________________. The diverse environments
that they live in include____________________________________________________________
They have more behavioral ____________________________, than the NWM’s. They are
sexually ________________, and females show ____________________.
Dental Formula: 2-1-2-3 (same dental formula as both apes and humans).
Question: What traits are similar and what traits are different between NWM and
OWM’s? What do you think explains the wider behavioral diversity of OWM
versus NWM?
4. Lesser or Smaller Apes include gibbons, and siamongs, Smaller apes have a smaller body
and brain size than the Great Apes. Smaller apes reside in Southeastern Asia. They are primarily
fruit eaters. Their mode of locomotion includes brachiating. Their typical social groups structure is
one female, one male and their sub-adult offspring, and they work together to defend their territory.
Question: Why are the smaller apes classified as apes and not as monkeys? What are
he differences between monkeys and apes (behaviorally and physically)?
42
5. Great Apes- the four groups below comprise the great apes
Orangutans: geographic location ___________________________. They primarily move about
and live in the ____________ and they are sexually ______________, Males are on average
twice the size of females (males some 200lbs, females 100lbs), their social group structure is very
unusual for a primate they are primarily _____________________. Their diet is primarily
______________________.
Question: Why do you think Orangutan’s are solitary? Why do you think they
reside in the trees (instead of on the ground)?
Gorillas: geographic location___________________and environment ___________________.
They are sexually _________________, males are on average twice the size of females (males
some 400lbs, females 200lbs). They primarily eat ______________________________________,
Their mode of locomotion is ______________________________________. They generally live
in groups of 10-15 individuals with one-male (silverback), multiple females, and their sub-adult
offspring. Behaviorally they are __________________________________ (contrary to popular
stereotypes).
Question: Why do you think the behaviors of gorilla’s have been so
misrepresented in the movies? Have you ever heard of Koko the Gorilla? Google
her and learn about Koko and the kitten.
Chimpanzee’s: geographic location is equatorial Africa, they have mild _____________________
dimorphism, their form of locomotion is _______________________________________________
Their diet is varied and includes _____________________________________________________
Chimpanzees will hunt for ___________________________, especially during the dry season.
Their social groups are large fission/fussion communities of 50+ individuals, made up of adult
males and adult females and offspring. Bonded __________________ form the core of the
community. Females show ____________________. Chimpanzees have been observed using a
variety of tools including __________________________________________________________.
Question: Do you think it is right to use chimpanzee’s in movies, circus acts and
in commercials? Would a chimpanzee make a good pet?
Bonobo’s: geographic area is south Zaire, they are physically leaner than chimps. Bonobo’s live
and operate more in the ____________ than chimps. They also walk ______________ more often
than chimps. Their diet is similar to chimps except that they don’t ________________ or eat
______________ to any great degree. Like chimps they live in large fission/fussion communities
of 50+ individuals, made up of adult males and adult females and offspring. Bonded
_________________ form the core of their group. Females show almost continuous
_____________________ and bonobos use G-G rubbing and _______________as a means of
negotiating relationships and to reduce group tensions.
Question: What are the key differences between chimps and bonobo’s? Why do
you think bonobo’s have such different behaviors? Are humans behaviors more
akin to chimps or bonobo’s?
43
Primate Studies: there are two major “theoretical” orientations or hypotheses used to explain and
analyze primate behavior.
What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
Socioecology looks at the relationship between the environment and__________________. It is
understood that animals interact with their environment and it impacts their behavior. The
“environment” includes quantity and ________________of food, predators, seasonal variation, etc.
___________________species differences (differences within species) can be explained in
relationship to the environment.
Why do you think that orangutans are solitary? Why do you think that
orangutans, which get quite large, are largely arboreal?
Sociobiology states that _______________________selects not only for physical traits but also
for behavioral traits. Sociobiologists state that different behavioral traits have been selected for in
males and females because they have different strategies for reproductive fitness.
Reproductive Strategies for Females
Reproductive Strategies for Males
Critiques of Sociobiology include;
The difficulty of showing increased reproductive fitness for specific ________________________
The difficulty of formulating an operational definition for a ____________________ to test for
differential reproductive success. The difficulty of associating specific genes with a specific
behavior. And, lastly, a key feature of primates is the role of learning. The idea that primate
behaviors are biologically as opposed to environmentally (or learning) based is very difficult to test
for and show.
Park discusses inclusive ________________and altruism in his section on primate behaviors. It is
proposed that sociobiology can explain altruistic acts among primates. This focuses on behaviors
as being biologically based and being driven (albeit at the unconscious level) by reproductive
success.
Can you think of alternative explanations for altruistic acts than inclusive fitness?
Can you think of any way to account for altruism between individuals who are not
genetically related?
Sociobiology applied to humans is called Evolutionary Psychology and it is highly controversial.
Evolutionary Psychology posits that females and males have different basic __________________
traits that are biologically based. Evolutionary psychologists come down on the ____________
side of the nature/nurture debate. They state that a basic template for human behaviors, with
different behaviors for females and males, was set once we evolved as a species.
What is testable in regards to genes and behaviors? What type of data can be
used to look at the relationship between genes and behaviors? Can we use other species
to look at this question in humans? Can we use observation in both the wild and in zoos?
44
Kuhn found the following in his studies of science over time
Traditional view of science: Kuhn noted that most scientists think that the “_____________” is
out there just waiting to be discerned. Scientists conduct observations, gather data, formulate
hypotheses, and when new understandings are found they are adopted and older understandings
are replaced. Science is thought to be conducted in an objective, linear manner.
Kuhn’s observations: Kuhn found that within science there are always ________________ that
influence scientists (as they influence all of us everyday). Paradigms are the way in which we view
the _______________ and they influence our observations and our interpretations. Paradigms are
akin to culture in this way. He stated that paradigms always influence scientists and that most
scientists conduct what he called “__________________” science. Normal science involves
conducting research and experiments within the context of the dominant ____________________.
Kuhn said that when new understandings are put forth they usually come from
________________________. He stated that these new understandings are not easily adopted
and it is often more like a revolution than an easy transition.
The Myth of _____________________ has come to light as a result of the work of philosophers of
science like Kuhn. The myth of objectivity refers to the fact that even though scientists are trained
to be objective in their work, no human being is capable of being completely objective. We are all
impacted by the culture that we are a raised in. All of the following factors influence our
interpretations; our gender, our socioeconomic class, our nationality, the timeframe that we live,
our previous training and education, etc.
Primatology allows anthropologists to compare and contrast non-human primates with the human
primate. We can utilize an understanding of homologies and analogies in our studies. Homologies
and analogies can be based on physical traits and behavioral traits.
Homology __________________________________________________________________
Give an example of a homology:_________________________________________________
Analogy ____________________________________________________________________
Give an example of an analogy:__________________________________________________
When comparing non-human primates with human primates primatologists will look at physical
traits, social behaviors, and adaptations to the environment (both physical and behavioral
adaptations). What species or group of primates would it make the most sense to contrast with
humans?
45
The New Chimpanzees- Video Questions
1. Nonhuman primates are studied in part to gain insight into our hominin past. What can these
studies tell us about early hominin’s? About their day to day lives, getting food, social group
structure and interactions? From your readings, class lecture and video look at the activities below
and consider which species engage in the behaviors listed below. What is the significance as to
who engages in these behaviors? Analyze; chimps, bononbos, and humans.
Hunting
Meat eating
Food sharing
Tool making and tool use
2. Culture is learned behavior. Do Chimpanzee behaviors arise as the result of culture (their
environment) or nature (their genes)? What data could you use to analyze this question?
3. What is the function of dominance displays in the Chimpanzee groups? Do dominance displays
always involve violence? Are dominant hierarchies static or do they fluctuate?
4. What are the intra-species differences between the Gombe and Tai chimps in regards to;
hunting strategies and success, food sharing, and tool making and use. What theoretical
orientation would account for these differences?
Gombi chimps
Tai Chimps
5. State at least two significant differences between chimps and bonobos?
6. Did the film anthromorphize the primates? What are the critiques of anthromorphizing in
primatology studies? Do you agree or disagree with the critiques?
7. Did the video imply that humans are different in kind from Chimpanzees or different by degree?
What data was used? What is your opinion?
46
Studying the past- Before we start on the hominin fossil record it helps to have some knowledge
as to what we can learn about the past and how we can learn it.
Osteology:
Paleopathology:
How do we sex a skeleton? What data can be used? How reliable is the data?
How do we age a skeleton? What data can be used? How reliable is the data?
What can we learn about the health and life of an individual from skeletal remains? What can we
know about trephination?
Read pgs 384-390 on forensic anthropology. What can we learn about the life and death of
Otzi through scientific methods?
1. How was Otzi’s body preserved for us to examine in the present day?
2. How old was Otzi when he died? What methods of dating were used to determine this?
3. What timeframe did Otzi live in? What methods of dating were used to determine this?
4. What does Otzi’s mummified remains tell us about his life and lifestyle (his teeth, body, etc.)?
47
Dating Techniques
1. What is the difference between a relative dating technique and an absolute dating technique?
2. How are relative dating techniques used to determine the relative age of a fossil?
3. What type of absolute dating technique would be used to date a Neandertal find from 30,000
years ago?
4. What type of dating technique would be used to date volcanic rock 2mya? Would this technique
be useful on a Homo erectus fossil?
Fossilization
5. Under what conditions do organisms fossilize? What conditions allowed Otzi to be fossilized?
List at least two other ways in which an organism is likely to be fossilized:
6. Are fossils common or rare? Why?
7. What is taphonomy?
8. How did taphonomic analysis change early understandings in South Africa in regards to early
hominins, hunting, and caves?
9. What is the molecular time clock and how is it used?
10, At one time it was thought that humans and apes shared a common ancestor some 12-15mya.
This was based on the ________________ differences between humans and apes as well as a 12
million year old fossil. Analysis of the molecular time clock today reveals that humans and apes
shared a common ancestor some _________________ mya.
11. Park states that the most important thing to ask is; 1) ________________ genes differ
between humans and chimps, 2) _________________ much these genes differ, and ___________
those genes do.
48
Chapter 10 -Origin and Evolution of Primates
The primate fossil record spans a long time frame and it is quite convoluted. I want you to have a
broad understanding of primate evolution. It is important to know what type of data is used to
analyze our primate past, to have a general understanding of the major transitions in primate
history and timing.
Questions: What does the genetic data reveal in regards to the timeframe for the origin of
primates? What does the fossil data reveal in regards to the timeframe for the origin of
primates? Where are these fossils found? What traits are used to identify a primate in the
fossil record some 55 mya?
The origin of anthropoids (monkeys, apes and humans- prosimians had already separated out)
included the following changes;
1) a _________________ lifestyle as opposed to a nocturnal lifestyle,
2) less leaping and more ______________________ through the trees on all fours,
3) a more _____________________ diet with less emphasis on insects.
There are two hypothesis as to the origin of New World Monkeys. The first idea is that prosimians
migrated into _______________________________________ from _______________________.
New world monkeys evolved from prosmians over time (with similar evolutionary pressures leading
to similar adaptations in new world and old world monkeys). The second hypotheses is that old
world monkeys __________________________ or island hopped from Africa to South America
when the two hemispheres were closer together.
Which hypothesis is favored at this time and what is the data and reasoning used?
Which primates are specialized and which primates are generalized? How has this
affected their survivability?
Why are the first apes in the fossil record called the dental apes?
What is the biggest and most famous primate in the fossil record? What myth may possibly be
associated with this primate? What timeframe did this famous ape live in?
49
Hominin Fossil Record: Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going?
These were the questions asked by Paul Gauguin in his famous painting of the same name.
Anthropologists use the four fields in anthropology (cultural, linguistic, archeology, physical) to
answer these questions. All four of these fields are critical to gaining a holistic understanding of
our past, present and potential future.
“Human beings seem quite incapable of speaking about themselves & their history without
becoming emotional in one way or another”
Ernest Mayr
“There are no final words. Human origins will always be enigmatic.” Donald Johanson
Hominin Fossil Record: What is a Hominin?
Hominin: ______________________________________________________________________
Bipedalism is the key, initial criteria used to determine if a fossil is a hominin versus an ape
ancestor. What are the means by which we can determine if a fossil species was a biped or a
quadroped? Differences in the skull ______________________________________, the pelvis
_________________________, the knee _______________________________________
the big toe________________________________, and the limbs______________________.
What are the key differences between ape and hominin dental features?_________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Key questions and issues for this section:
What is the oldest hominin? Where and in what type of environment did the oldest hominin(s)
evolve? What criteria is used to determine the oldest hominin?
What were the lives of hominins like? What was their likely social group, mating patterns, cognitive
abilities, subsistence strategies? What type of data and reasoning is used to answer these
questions?
What led to the selection for bipedalism? Think in terms of the environment, and the processes of
evolution.
What factors led to the multiple hominin speciations and extinctions?
What factors selected for bigger brains and what were the consequences of bigger brains?
When and where did Homo sapiens originate?
What are the key differences, physically and behaviorally of the different Homo species?
What was going on with the environment during the evolution of hominins? What is the
significance of the Great Rift Valley? Of the Pleistocene?
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Key factors to keep in mind include; how do the processes of evolution work to change
populations over time, what is the role of the environment, and what role did competitive exclusion
play in the multiple speciations and extinctions of hominins?
Keep in mind that paradigms filter interpretations
Know about the early debate as to what first defined a homininbig _____________________, tools, _____________________ or small teeth
What biases affected the interpretation of Piltdown Man?
What biases affected the interpretation of the Taung Baby?
All of the following biases have affected interpretations of the hominin fossil record over time;
personal biases (vested interest of individual scientists), theoretical biases, nationalism, gender
biases, and the over-riding bias of humans being seen as unique compared to other animals and
primates.
Why was bipedalism selected for?
It is assumed that bipedalism was ___________________________for because it has affected
many parts of the body and these changes occurred over millions of years. A selection for
bipedalism would mean that being a dedicated biped increased the ______________________
success of individuals. To answer this question what type of information would you need to
evaluate? (hint- review your notes on natural selection)
Your text has seven models to explain the selection for Bipedalism:
Carrying model- what would they have carried?
Vigilance model- does this model work to explain bipedalism or upright posture?
Heat dissipation model- how would bipedalism have helped in this model?
Energy efficiency model- what is the criticism of this model in regards to initial selection?
Foraging/harvesting model- how would this model have led to the selection of
bipedalism?
Display model- how would this model have led to the selection of bipedalism?
Walking in trees- how would this model have led to the selection of bipedalism?
Can only one of these models be used to explain bipedalism?
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Hominin Fossil Record- The species/genus underlined are those that you need to know.
Australopithecus: genus with multiple species, 4.2-2.3 mya, East & South Africa, “bipedal apes”
Genus description: ______________________________________________________________
1. How refined was the bipedalism of Australopithecus? Was Australopithecus likely
solely terrestrial or were they likely still partially arboreal?
2. They had reduced canines, increased manual dexterity, and were sexually dimorphic
what type of mating patterns did they likely engage in and what was their social group
formation like? Was their lifestyle likely similar to chimps and/or bonobos?
3. Were they the predator or the prey in their environment?
4. What is the oldest agreed upon hominin ancestor?
A. anamensis: 4.2-3.9 mya, Kenya, (East Africa) forest/woodland environment, 21 individuals
A. afarensis: 4-3 mya, Ethiopia, “Lucy,” 3’5”-5ft. 65-100lbs., 440cc average brain size, some
adaptations for arboreal lifestyle, long arms, short legs, prognathus face, sexually dimorphic, 300+
specimens.
A. africanus: 3-2.3mya, South Africa, few differences from afarensis, 1st find 1925.
A. garhi: found 1999, Ethipia (East Africa), 5 individuals. Key points: garhi found with animal
remains subject to stone scrape marks and bones crushed to get marrow, it was very surprising to
find stone tool use in a small brained Australopithecus. These finds are still under investigation.
A. bahrelghazalia: found 1995, Chad (North Africa), find initially subject to much debate because
of age and location, unusual to find Australopithecus in northern Africa. This find now has more
validity with the recent find of Sahelanthropus tchadensis in Northern Africa.
A. sediba: unveiled April 2010. Found South Africa, dated at 1.95 million to 1.78 million years.
Two partial skeletons were found, a young male child and an adult female along with some 130+
fragments of fossils. This find is still being subjected to speculation and analysis.
Paranthropus: genus with multiple species (about half the textbooks put the Paranthropus species
under the Australopithecus genus designation) 2.8-1mya, East & South Africa,
Genus description ______________________________________________________________
“Robusticity” is in molars, chewing muscles, otherwise similar to “gracile” hominids in overall
physical size. Species: aethiopithecus, boisei, robustus.
1. Paranthropus overlaps with Australopithecus and early Homo, what allowed it to “out
compete” the Australopithecus?
2. Why did Paranthropus likely become extinct with the arrival of early Homo?
3. Are the differences in teeth and chewing muscles enough to put these species in a
different genus from Australopithecus? Should all of the Paranthropus species be included
in the Australopithecus genus? What is the basis of this debate?
4.
From the neck down what is the difference between Australopithecus and
Paranthropus? Between the Australopithecines, Paranthropus and Homo habilis?
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Homo:
Genus description ______________________________________________________________
Homo trends toward larger brains, meat in diet, reduction of face & molars, making and using of
stone tools.
“Early Homo” 2.3 –1.5 mya, East & South Africa (with some question about recent finds in the
Republic of Georgia- debate as to whether or not these finds are early or middle Homo)
Homo habilis & Homo rudolfensis: features include less prognathus facial features, bit less sloping
forehead, no sagittal crest, brain size 680 avg. (500-800). Body similar to Australopithecus, still
longer arms & shorter legs (4-5 feet, 70-115 lbs.). Oldewan Tool Tradition/Pebble Tools.
1. Why is Homo habilis included in the genus Homo? Is there a debate over this?
2. How did Homo use their stone tools? What stone tools are associated with them?
3. Did H. habilis process meat at home bases or did they utilize stone caches?
4. What is the difference between Australopithecus, Paranthropus and early Homo?
Middle Homo: 1.8-100,000 (27,000?), Africa, Southeast Asia, China, Europe
Homo eragaster (generally seen as the “African” erectus) & Homo erectus. Features of middle
Homo include bigger brains, more complex behaviors, more complex stone tools, and living in a
variety of environments. Skull: heavy brow ridges, some prognathism, thick cranium, little
forehead development, wide cranium base. Brain size: 980 avg (800-1250). Body: modern
looking neck-down, modern gait, hairless?, 5-6 ft., 100lbs+. Auchulian Tools: flaked entire stone,
controlled shape of core.
1. Why did erectus leave Africa and what behavioral and/or physical features allowed
them to be able to leave?
2. What is the debate over the Dmanisi finds? The finds in Indonesia (Java)?
3. When were hominids able to make and use fire? What data is used to analyze this
question? What are the benefits of fire?
4. When did infants become so helpless and how did this likely affect the social group
structure of these hominins?
5. What are some of the pros and cons involved in the selection for larger brains?
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Archaic Homo sapiens : This section involves ongoing contested taxonomic classifications. As
we get more recent in time there are increasing numbers of fossil finds and the fossils are found
more widely distributed over the world (on three different continents). One debate is whether or not
some or all of these species should be labeled as different species or as subspecies to our species
(Homo sapiens).
Homo antecessor: Spain, 780,000-300,000 found with primitive tools 1mya,hunters? Cannibals?
Homo heidlbergensis: China, England, Africa, India; 500,000-100,000, more vertical foreheads,
1300cc avg. brain size, Levallois Tool Tradition: “prepared core” careful preparation of core to
produce desired flake shape, more specialized purpose tools.
Homo neanderthalensis (Neandertals): 225,000-36,000 Europe, Croatia, Iraq, Israel (275+
individuals), Skull: sloped forehead, back of skull broad, large discontinuous brow ridges, large
face, slightly prognathus, receding chin, large sinus cavities, Brain size: 1480 avg. (1200-1740),
Body: robust, stocky, muscular, 5’3”-5’6”, Mousterian Tool: elaboration of Levallois, careful
retouching of flakes, up to 63 tool types (Butchering, wood-working, some bone/ antler carving, cut
animal hides, Haft stone points for spears).
Key questions/ points:
1. Neandertals are a “cold-adapted” species, did they interbreed with early modern Homo
sapiens (what is the data and reasoning used in this debate)?
2. Did neandertals likely have modern language? What is the data and reasoning used in
this debate?
3. What is the data and reasoning used in the debate over how similar or different
neandertals were in their; behavior, cognitive abilities, etc. from early modern Homo
sapiens? Specifically address; big game hunting, care for the elderly/ill, burial of the dead,
and language.
“Homo” floresiensis: 95,000-12,000, Island of Flores, Indonesia. Remains of several individuals
found Oct. 2004 with additional fossils found Oct. 2005. These hominins are small, 3 feet tall, with
small ape sized brains and were found with sophisticated tools. Nicknamed The Hobbits they have
left scientists with more questions than answers. Key questions include:
1. What can we make of these finds? Are they Australopithecines or Homo erectus that
made their way out of Africa and developed sophisticated stone tools and hunting abilities?
2. What happens to animals on islands (reference small rodents and large mammals)?
Why is it such a surprise that island evolution pressures affected hominins?
3. How can we explain sophisticated tools and hunting behaviors from small brained,
miniature hominins?
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Anatomically modern Homo sapiens/ Upper Paleolithic peoples:
Africa 200,000 (oldest sites- possibly up to 300,000 yrs ago), Europe, Asia, Australia (40k-80k),
Americas (17k-30k), Skull: flat/small face, small teeth, no heavy brow ridges, globular skull, vertical
forehead. Body: slender, taller, not as robust. Not visibly different from modern humans today.
Upper Paleolithic Revolution: At about 30k the fossil record seems to reveal an explosion of;
sophisticated, highly differentiated tools, tools that are works of art, the use of bone, antler and
ivory, sophisticated hunting strategies (bow and arrow, net hunting, running game off cliffs), artwork
(cave art and figurines), burials with artifacts, musical instruments, personal adornment art, etc.
Key points and questions:
1. Was this truly a sudden, cultural transformation? We do find cave art and sophisticated
tools in earlier times. As new finds come forth will we start seeing a gradual transition
instead of an “explosion?”
2. Why did humans start engaging in these symbolic behaviors at this time? Was there a
change in the brains of these hominids (a mutation that changed their cognitive abilities)?
3. What is the meaning of the cave art and the figurines that they made?
4. Why is most of the discussion centered in Europe in regards to cave art and art in
general.
Homo Sapiens idaltu: found June 2003, dated at 160,000 (previously oldest fossils were
200,000), three skulls (two adults, 1 child), living close to freshwater lake in Ethiopia, butchered
remains of hippopotamuses, fish remains, and 640 stone tools found, skulls subject to de-fleshing,
mortuary purposes? Cannibalism?
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The following species/genus are undergoing ongoing analysis and debate as to their place in the
fossil record. You do not have to know the species or genus names listed here, but you DO need
to know that there are earlier fossil finds and know in general the debates surrounding them.
Ardipithecus ramidus: 4.4 mya, Ethiopia (East Africa), bipedal, “ape-like facial features,” foramen
magnum and arm bone shows bipedalism. Found in a forest/ woodland environment. Remains of
some 50+ individuals found. Park states there is a lot of dispute in regards to this genus in the
hominin fossil record, I disagree with him. My review of other texts and other physical
anthropologists show that Ardipithecus is seen as the oldest definitive hominin. I have not required
that you know this genus because it would conflict with your text. The finds and classification of
Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba, found 2001 Ethiopia, dated 5.2-5.8mya is more controversial. In
part because the finds are very limited and in part because of the subspecies designation.
Sahelanthropus tchadensis “Toumai”: found 2002 in Chad (North, Central Africa), dated 6-7
mya, nearly complete cranium, which has both “chimp-like” and “human-like” features. Some see
Toumai as an early ape, others as an early hominid.
1. Do Toumai’s fossil remains reveal a skeletal anatomy for quadropedalism or
bipedalism?
2. The location and age of Toumai has been quite shocking to some because it implies
that hominids may have evolved in two locations and hominin’s may have evolved later
than previously thought.
3. What does the debate over Sahelanthropus tchadensis reveal about the nature of
science?
Orrorin tugenesis: (“original man”) found 2001 in Ethiopia (East Africa) dated 6-7 mya, some 12
bones including teeth, jaw, arm and femur bones were found.
Key questions/points:
1. Do fossil remains for Orrorin tugenesis reveal a skeletal anatomy for bipedalism or
quadropedalism ?
Kenyathropus platyops: announced find 2001, in Kenya (Eastern Africa), dated 3.5 mya.
Features include; fairly modern face, a “flat face”, small molars, near vertical cheekbones (all
features associated with later hominids).
1. Is K. platyops a more direct ancestor to the genus Homo than Australopithecus?
2. Do the morphological features of K. platyops warrant a new genus designation?
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Video Questions- In Search of Human Origins – Part Two
1. Donald Johanson discusses the various paradigms that have influenced our interpretations of
the hominin fossil record. What are the three main paradigms that have been used to understand
early hominins? What data and reasoning has been used in each of these paradigms?
Man the _______________ Ape: Data, reasoning and context:
Man the __________________ Hunter: Data, reasoning and context:
Man the Efficient ____________________: Data, reasoning and context:
2. What is the importance of our paradigms about Homo sapiens past? What is the significance of
our ideas as to the nature of humans? Is this an issue of merely academic curiosity or does it have
practical implications?
3. What is taphonomy and how did taphonomic analysis change our views of early hominins lives
and behaviors?
4. What is the Great Rift Valley?
5. What is the goal of the study of early hominin fossils? What other data, besides fossils, is used
to pursue this goal?
6. What is Olduvai Gorge? What tool technology is named after this site?
7. What has been found at Olduvai Gorge and how are these finds analyzed?
8. Based on the description what genus do you think they are describing when the video talks
about Zijanthropus? (the name Zinjanthropus is not used as any longer)
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Chapter 12 The Debate over Modern Human Origins
1. What data is used in regards to the debate over modern human origins?
2. The African Replacement Model (AR) states that humans are a relatively _______________
species, some ___________________________ years old. It states that modern humans arose
from a population in ______________________ and ______________________ other hominin
populations. What does Park state is required for this hypothesis to be validated?
3. The Multiregional Evolution Model (MRE) states that humans are an __________________
species, some _____________________________ years old. It states that humans evolved in
Africa, and left as _____________ __________________ some ___________ years ago and that
there was enough gene flow for all populations to remain one species, albeit with variable
phenotypic traits. What does Park state is required for this hypothesis to be validated?
4. What does the fossil and archeological record tell us about these two hypotheses?
5. What are the three types of genetic data used to test the above hypotheses?
____________________________, _________________________, _______________________
6. What does mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) trace?
7. What does the Y chromosome trace?
8. What does DNA trace?
9. What have the studies of neandertal DNA revealed in regards to the likelihood of their interbreeding with early modern Homo sapiens?
10. In regards to evolutionary theory what are Christopher Stringer’s criticisms of the MRE model
of the origin of modern Homo sapiens?
11. What is Park’s conclusion in regards to this debate? What data is used?
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Chapter 13 - Evolution and Adaptation in Human Populations
The four processes of evolution have impacted Homo sapiens in selective ways, through ________
_____________________ and randomly through _____________________, ________ ________,
and ___________ _______________.
Examples of selection and human variation include;
Skin color. _____________________ is responsible for the variation present in humans but
______________ ___________________ is seen as responsible for the variation in H. sapiens
over time. In equatorial regions, in which there is a great of UV radiation, humans historically had
very _____________ skin. Dark skin is adaptive in environments with a great deal of ______
________________________ because it confers protection against UV radiation. It is likely that
the first Homo sapien populations were dark skinned. It is speculated that dark skin protected
against sun poisoning and possibly folate deficiency (which would affect reproductive success).
Lighter skin color is speculated to have been selected for as humans moved into ______________
regions with less _______ _______________________. Vitamin D can be synthesized in humans
when it is activated by UV radiation. When humans moved into more ________________ regions,
with dark skin they may have had lowered reproductive ______________ due rickets (a condition
that is brought about by Vitamin D deficiency). Individuals who were lighter skinned would have
been ______________________ for if they were more ___________________________ fit.
Questions: What role would gene drift and gene flow play in the above mentioned
process? Skin cancer is increasing at astronomical rates in modern Homo sapiens, would
natural selection have likely selected in relationship to skin cancer? Why
Of the following traits which are seen as being impacted by natural selection and which by
random processes?
Overall body shape and size (long and lean compared to short and thick)
Head shape (lean versus wide)
Nose shape (short and wide versus long and narrow)
Earwax (yellow, brown and sticky versus dry, grey and flaky)
ABO blood system (A, B, O or AB blood)
Lactase deficiency (ability or lack of ability to process milk/milk products in adulthood)
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Epidemiological Transitions; Disease and Human Evolution
For most of human history we lived in ______________, nomadic populations which were
___________ from other populations. Disease would have impacted these small groups but they
would not have suffered from epidemics.
The first epidemiological transition came with ________________________ and the domestication
of _____________________, about ________________ years ago. For the first time people were
sedentary, population densities increased and ____________________ diseases became a
significant threat. Issues involved with diseases impacting human populations include;
________________ domestication bringing humans in close contact with animals, irrigation and
standing water (mosquitos), standing garbage lead to _____________________ problems.
Relying on agriculture for food limited the food sources of early humans and lead to ____________
deficiencies.
Questions: What factors likely aided the Spanish in conquering the Aztecs in 1521?
What caused the Black Death in Europe? What was the outcome of this event?
The second epidemiological transition came about in ________________________. In this era
infectious diseases were ________________ under control or __________________________.
The head of the Center for Disease Control in the USA, referring to infectious diseases stated in
the 1960’s “the war has been won.” People began dying of chronic, degenerative diseases such as
_________________, and ___________________disease. Diabetes became a threat. These
conditions are often called “diseases of progress” because they come with agriculture and
industrialization. People become __________________, and they eat more salt, _____________,
and _________________. Obesity, alcohol, and tobacco all impact overall health and death rates.
Questions: What are the benefits and downfalls of adopting agriculture as a way of life?
Are the benefits and downfalls of agriculture equally distributed among a population?
We are currently living in the third epidemiological transition. We now know we have not “won the
war” on infectious diseases as old diseases are re-emerging and others are appearing. We are still
dying off due to the diseases of progress but we are also faced with antibiotic resistant strains of
tuberculosis, and staph infection. The HIV virus has killed some ______________ million people
since 1981.
Questions: What can you do as an individual to work to minimize the spread of antibiotic
Resistance?
The population crisis and the consumption crisis.
Park discusses the population crisis and he goes over some of the key issues in the crisis (as well
as the belief by some that there is no crisis). When I was in school there was a lot of talk about the
population crisis and how we were almost rolling off the cliff of survivability. Currently there are
many that are talking about the levels of consumption of water, oil, etc. in developed countries.
Many see the consumption crisis as just as devastating to our world as the population crisis. Can
you make a difference in regards to either of these two problems that we face as a species?
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Human Biological Diversity
Park uses a discussion of sex and gender categories as a lead in to discuss the topic of race. Sex
is a _________________________ category. As a ____________________ category sex is
based on three types of criteria; ____________________, reproductive organs, and secondary sex
traits. Gender is a __________________ category. As a __________________ category gender
is variable by culture. Gender is a _____________taxonomy that rests on a biological category.
Question: Is the categorization of humans into two biological sexes absolute or could we
categorize humans into five or six sexes. What data and reasoning could be used here?
Why have some groups allowed for additional gender roles and other groups have not?
Race as a Biological Concept
In biology race is the same as _______________________. Subspecies are _________________
distinguishable populations within a _______________. The race or subspecies concept is
problematic in biology because of the criteria used to categorize a population as a subspecies.
Problems with the subspecies concept include; what phenotypic traits should be used, how much
__________________ is enough to grant subspecies designation. Biologists see subspecies as
the first step toward ________________________ if they use it at all.
Humans don’t meet the criteria for subspecies designation. Human populations, even spread out
around the world, are mobile and tend to continually engage in __________________ flow.
Human populations vary in the average biological traits that they posses but they often don’t match
up to the _______________ categories that are based on culture, geographic area, nationality,
language, etc.
Most anthropologists see race as culturally constructed and without biological validity in human
populations. The race concept implies that you can divide human populations into discrete
categories. After some 200+ years of trying western scientists have been trying to come up with an
agreed upon ____________ of races to no avail. To determine the number of races there has to
be unambiguous, criteria that is to use to differentiate populations. A variety of methods have been
used to try and separate humans into different races.
Continually variable traits such as _________________ color, hair color and type, and
facial features have been used without success (there are always exceptions and
demarcations are ambiguous).
Discrete traits such as _______________________________________ have been used
as well without success.
The American Anthropology Association (AAA) came out with a statement several years ago
addressing the race concept. This is one quote from that statement
“the race concept has been inappropriately used to explain, rationalize, and justify
inequalities among human groups” “race is a socially constructed category”
You can go to the American Anthropology Association website www.aaanet.org and read the entire
statement.
What is the significance of the race concept today? What are the political, economic and social
ramifications of the race concept today? What have been some of the issues in the past?
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Biological Determinism
The race concept laid the foundation for biological ____________________________. This
concept was prevalent certainly through the 1800’s and on into the mid 1900’s. It basically states
that the ________________________ differences between populations of people reveal average
___________________________ and _________________________ differences between
populations. Within this concept is the belief that some groups are __________________ and
some groups are ____________________.
The concept of biological __________________________ was accepted by many scientists in the
past, although there are few that subscribe to it today. It is still not an uncommon belief among
members of the general population today. The ________________ in biological determinism led to
public policies with devastating effects. In the United States from the early 1920’s until the 1970’s
there were _____________________ laws on the books. These laws allowed the government to
decide what individuals were ____________________ and then forcibly sterilize them (often
without their knowledge). The rationale was that these individuals were biologically unfit and
should not be allowed to reproduce. A variety of criteria was used to determine individuals as unfit.
IQ tests were one of the criteria used to determine someone’s fitness.
What can we say about race and intelligence?
Park discusses various problems with the idea that there are average differences in intelligence
among populations. First of all the idea that IQ tests measure some ______________, mental
ability. IQ tests have been notorious for being culturally biased. Those that write the tests cannot
help but insert questions that reflect their cultural knowledge (gender, class, ethnicity). Jonathan
Marks states that IQ test measure __________________ but not _________________________.
Secondly the idea that we can put assign a ________________ to IQ is inappropriate reification.
There are many different types of intelligence and tests often measure the ability to take tests, not
an innate, _____________ ability. Lastly, as we just finished discussing, race is a cultural
construction. So, how do we compare groups in regards to average intellectual ability?
Question: How would you respond to the statement “Race is both real and an illusion” In
what way is race real and in what way is it an illusion?
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Race the Power of an Illusion- The Story We Tell
This video is part two of a three part video series which looks at the issue of race in the United
States. The Story We Tell looks at how 19th century science legitimized the race concept in the
context of a country which was working to rationalize and justify enslavement of West Africans.
The United States formed as a country based on the ideals of freedom and equality for all.
However, only some groups were given this freedom and equality under the law. West Africans
were enslaved and used to produce wealth for plantations in the South, the Indigenous Peoples of
the America’s were being subjected to genocide and their lands taken. Later, there was the
expansion of the American empire which included annexing a large area of Mexico, as well as
taking the Philippines as a territory. The film shows how the race concept was a necessary means
to rationalize the separation of Whites, Blacks, Indigenous Peoples, and others so that the rights of
freedom and equality were only given to one group, White males.
1. What is the difference between a biological and a social categorization of race?
2. How did Thomas Jefferson’s personal life experiences affect his interpretation of the differences
between White Europeans, Black Africans and the Indigenous Peoples of the America’s? Did he
start out from a neutral position in his quest to gain insight into the differences among peoples?
3. How did the notion that “all men are created equal” create a moral contradiction in colonial
America? How did the race concept help resolve that contradiction? What would you need to
know about economics, and politics to understand the history of the race concept in the USA?
4. We now have a president who is half White and half Black. Why is he labeled and perceived as
Black (instead of White)? How does an understanding of USA history help us understand this
labeling?
5. What did the publications of scientists Louis Agassiz, Samual Morton, and Josiah Nott argue,
and what was their impact on U.S. legal and social policy?
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6. What paradigms affected scientists in their study and demarcation of human races? What
mechanisms in science work to self-correct mistaken scientific understandings?
7. What role did race play in the American; colonization of Mexican territory, Cuba, the Phillipines,
Guam and Puerto Rico? Do you think the United States is an empire?
8. The organizers of the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair put people on display who they defined as the
“other.” Does anything like this still occur today?
9. Reginald Horsman states the concept of race was used to resolve a number of dilemmas in the
United States, a country which espouses freedom and equality for all. He states Americans told
themselves a story… “This successful republic (the USA) is not destroying Indians just for the love
of it, they’re not enslaving Blacks because they are selfish, they’re not overrunning Mexican lands
because they are avaricious. This is part of some inevitability…of the way races are constituted.”
Is this story a valid depiction of the motivations of the American nation? Why or why not?
10. What are the stories we tell ourselves today? The United States is a nation that much of the
world sees as an empire. What stories are necessary today to justify our actions?
11. How was the notion of Manifest Destiny shaped by beliefs about race? Is there a relationship
between Manifest Destiny and current foreign policies? Is there a relationship between the
concept of the White Man’s Burden and current foreign policies?
12. This video reveals how typical human suspicions about differences turned into a “common
sense” wisdom that White Americans used to explain everything from individual behavior to the
fate of whole societies. What is your reaction to this statement? Agree? Disagree? Data and
reasoning?
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Chapter 15- Biological Anthropology: Applications and Lessons
At the beginning of the semester I stated that I believe that the knowledge you gain from a physical
anthropology class is relevant to your everyday life. As you read through this chapter, review some
of the material from earlier chapters work to answer the following questions.
1. Forensic anthropology is a field of study that has been heavily popularized in the mainstream
media and on TV crime shows. What can we learn from fossil remains? What is the role of
forensic anthropologists in Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (hint- read about Clyde Snow’s
role in Argentina. You can also google El Salvador and Guatemala and read about efforts to gain
information on the civil wars and conflicts there)? How important are Truth and Reconciliation
Commissions to countries that have had civil warfare?
2. What lesson was discovered by comparing the daily routines of people living in industrialized
societies versus those living traditional lives? To what degree can you apply this knowledge to
your everyday life?
3. What does James McKenna recommend in regards to the sleeping arrangements of infants?
What are some of the debates and issues in regards to this topic? What does the comparative
approach tells us about this topic? After taking this class are there things you will do differently if
you have children (or if you have them already)? In regards to; sleeping arrangements, food eaten,
daily care, etc?
4, What is Jared Diamonds contention in regards to Ashkenazi Jews and Tay Sachs? Which
process of evolution does he see as being likely responsible for the high rate of the Tay Sachs
allele in Ashkenazi Jewish populations? If you were an Ashkenazi Jew would you get genetically
tested before you had offspring? Would it make a difference in your decision if you were marrying
another Ashkenazi Jew? If you are not an Ashkenazi Jew would you be tested?
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5. What are the key differences between the environment of humans living in the Stone Age and
how most Americans live today (reference diet, exercise, and diseases)? What are the things that
are killing us off today versus what killed us off in the past? In what way can you apply this
knowledge to your everyday life? If you were the Surgeon General of the United States how would
you apply this knowledge?
6. In light of what you have learned about natural selection and how it shapes populations of
organisms over time will you change your use of antibiotics? In what ways?
7. What are the global issues that Park discusses in his section on Global Issues? In what way
has your understandings of science and scientific debate changed over the course of this
semester? Will it affect the way that you vote in the coming years?
8. Do you think Park is accurate in stating that you can do most anything with a degree in
Biological Anthropology? What skills and knowledge would you gain with a degree in this field? To
what degree does a degree, and/or a specific degree affect your opportunities in life?
67
Anthropology: The Study of Humans
Nothing is more fascinating than studying that ever variable creature, humans.
Anthropologists have four fields which they use to study humans in their
entirety. Anthropologists study humans in the past and present, in the United
States and around the world. Join this exciting field of discovery and gain a
practical degree that will help you work in most any field.
Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropologists study
contemporary cultures around the world.
What is culture? What are the different
beliefs and practices of humans? Is
monogamy or polygamy the norm for
humans? How does romantic love
impact marriage? What practices and
institutions do all humans have? What
are human universals (things that all
humans do)? How do anthropologists
conduct their fieldwork? How can our
knowledge of humans be used to deal
with current day problems and issues?
Physical Anthropology
Physical anthropologists utilize a variety
of means to study humans biologically.
What is the Human Genome Project and
how will it change our world (designer
babies, cloning)? How do scientists gain
their understandings of the world? Is
evolution fact or theory? What is natural
selection? What is meant by the term
survival of the fittest? Are humans still
evolving? Are human behaviors
genetically determined? Is race a valid
biological concept? What do we know of
the hominid fossil record? What is the
difference between apes and monkeys?
Archeology
Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic anthropologists study the
Archeologists examine past cultures and relationship between language and
civilizations through the artifacts they left culture, and the nature of language.
behind. Learn how peoples in the past
When did humans first acquire
worked to survive in different environlanguage? How does language affect
ments. What type of shelters did they
the way we see the world? How does
live in, what were their lives like,
our culture affect the way we see the
archeologists use the artifacts people left world? Why do males and females have
behind to reconstruct the lives of people communication problems? How does
in the past. What are the scientific
language work to reflect and reinforce
methods and theories that are used to
cultural conflicts and stratification? Can
trace the ways in which humans worked apes learn language (sign language)?
to survive throughout history?
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Anthropology: As a field of study & as a career
 Anthropology as a field of study is always fascinating. Students find it
exciting, and continually interesting, learning about humans in their entirety.
Anthropologists study humans in the United States and around the world. We
study humans in the past, present and gain insights for the future.
o Skills acquired include knowledge about the diverse ways in which
humans around the world live, their values and norms. These skills
are critical for success and survival in today’s diverse world.
o There are four major fields in anthropology and a virtually unlimited
number of areas of specialization for anthropology students to explore
including: business, medicine, law, religion, art, language, economics.
Medical anthropology is one of the fasted growing fields today.
 Anthropology gives students the flexibility to go into almost any career
they may be interested in.
o Anthropology as an undergraduate degree gives students a foundation
for almost any career. Students gain the skills & knowledge that both
domestic and international companies are looking for. The acquisition
of verbal and written communication skills are integral to anthropology
programs.
o Critical thinking skills, knowledge of domestic & international cultures,
the ability to analyze large amounts of data, flexibility in diverse
situations are all aspects of an anthropology degree.
Go to the American Anthropology Website to get more information about
Anthropology and Careers in Anthropology
www.aaanet.org
69
Assignments
Physical Anthropology 101
70
MIR’s – Articles and Contemporary Reflections
The class schedule lists assignments and due dates. There are three basic types of assignments;
1) MIR’s in which you find the assigned article online, 2) CR/MIR’s where you read the
contemporary reflection in your text, 3) assignments contained in this Notes & Assignments packet.
MIR’s: You will find the articles online (see the following page for websites). Each article assigned
requires the completion of a Main Idea Review (MIR). The (MIR) main idea reviews entail typing
out the main idea or main point from the reading, along with the supporting data and reasoning
from the article. The MIR’s should be three to five sentences and should tell the main idea(s) or
point of the article. You also need to include the data and reasoning that the author uses to
support their main idea(s).
To earn credit for the MIRs they must:
1. be TYPED, credit will only be given for typed work
2. contain the main idea(s) of the article and the key data and reasoning the author uses
to support the main idea(s)
3. at the top put your full name (as listed on the class roster), and the title of the article
4. if you have two MIRs on the same day put them on the same sheet of paper.
Hints for MIR assignments: The main idea is the key point or points that the author is trying to
get across, along with the data and or reasoning that the author uses to support the main idea.
The main idea will often be stated in the introduction and/or at the end of the article. You may have
to read the article a couple of times before you are able to discern the main idea(s). The MIR is not
a description of the article.
 MIR’s are a part of your Class Credit points and are basically credit/no credit. For the most
part I will not grade your MIR’s I will just check that you have completed the assignment. We
will go over most all of the articles assigned in class.
 You will not receive credit for assignments that are not typed or are late.
MIR/CR’s- These assignments are the same as the regular MIR’s except that instead of finding the
article online you read the assigned Contemporary Reflection (at the end of each chapter in your
text) and follow the instructions for the MIR’s above.
Assignments in the Notes & Assignments Packet
The rest of the class credit assignments are in this packet (see table of contents). To earn full
points on these assignments  follow the directions carefully,
 if the assignment allows you to handwrite the information be neat and legible,
For ALL ASSIGNMENTS
 Type or Print your full name (as listed on class roster)
 Type the article or assignment title at the top of the page (if I don’t know what assignment it is I
can’t give you credit)
 Turn in your work in class on the due date. I only accept assignments in class on the day they
are due- do not turn in assignments to the mailroom or to my office. NO LATE PAPERS WILL
BE ACCEPTED. All assignments must be handed in IN CLASS on the due date. I will NOT
accept any papers outside of class (do turn in papers to my office, by email, etc.).
71
MIR Articles- with internet sites. You can also get the articles by going to the Reserve Desk in the
library and copying the articles from the Annual Editions texts.
Curse and Blessing of the Ghetto by Jared Diamond
http://courses.washington.edu/bioa101/articles/article43.pdf
Thinking Like a Monkey by Jerry Adler
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/monkey-200801.html
Why Are Some Animals So Smart by Carel Van Schaik
http://faculty.bennington.edu/~sherman/how%20do%20animals%20work%3F/orang%20intelligence.pdf
Dim Forest, Bright Chimps by Christophe Boesch
http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/Dim%20Forest,%20Bright%20Chimps.pdf
Hunting the First Hominid Pat Shipman
http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/hunting-the-first-hominid
Scavenging of Peking Man by Noel T. Boas
http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/courses/Peking1.htm
Hard Times Among Neanderthals by Erik Trinkus
http://www.ghosttn.com/History/Anthropology/Hard%20Times%20-Neanderthals.pdf
Tall and Short of It by Barry Bogin
http://courses.washington.edu/bioa101/articles/article38.pdf
Dr. Darwin by Lori Oliwenstein
http://discovermagazine.com/1995/oct/drdarwin570
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Physical Anthropology 2011
K. Markley
First Day General Survey
Are the following statements true or false? Write an F or T next to each question (you
will NOT be graded on this survey, this is an introduction to the class).
1. The key methodology in science is whether or not hypotheses can be tested. Science can
be used to answer all of the questions that humans have about the world.
2. Science can prove facts but theories are always a matter of opinion and debate. All
opinions and theories are given equal voice in the scientific community.
3. Survival of the fittest (in Darwinian natural selection) is all about being the biggest, the
strongest, and the smartest.
4. Charles Darwin’s stated that humans evolved from apes. His theory of natural selection has
been dramatically revised since it was first formulated and is hotly debated in biology today.
5. Four DNA bases, adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine are the basis for all life on
earth. All life on earth; bacteria, flowers, dogs, and humans is coded for by these four
DNA bases.
6. All typical humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. However males are more likely to get a
variety of genetic diseases because of their complement of sex chromosomes.
7. The completion of the human genome charted the sequence of A, T, C and G in Homo
sapiens. The results of this study has given us the following knowledge; the number
of genes humans have, what each gene does, and how behaviors are encoded in our genes.
8. Humans are in the mammal Class and in the primate Order.
9. Humans are unique in their physical and behavioral features as compared to other primates.
10. Human variation can be easily categorized and classified. All scientists agree that there are
only two sexes in the species Homo sapiens and that humans can be divided into races.
11. Early hominins, like Lucy (an Australopithecus afarensis), co-existed with dinosaurs.
12. Neanderthals co-existed and interbred with early modern Homo sapiens
13. The oldest “human-like ancestors” in the fossil record are some 4.5 million years and they are
considered “human-like” (instead of ape-like) because of their big brains
14. Forensic anthropologists can gain insights into the lifestyle, sex, and approximate age an
individual was when they died by examining skeletal remains.
15. Humans, whales and dogs are all mammals and they all share the same basic body plan in
their limbs.
16. The creation/evolution debate or intelligent design/evolution debate is ongoing in science.
Scientists have been debating the validity of evolutionary theory since Darwin’s time with no
resolution in sight.
17. All Christian churches and Christian theologians state that you cannot be a good Christian and
believe in evolution.
18. Since the persecution of Galileo, science, politics and religion have pretty much stayed in their
own separate spheres and there has not been a lot of conflict.
19. Evolutionary theory can explain the origin of life on earth.
20. Evolution is only a theory (and therefore not a fact).
73
What Happened to the Dinosaurs? In “Sex, Drugs, Disasters, and the Extinction of the Dinosaurs,”
Stephen Jay Gould puts forth three explanations from scientists to explain the demise of the dinosaurs: sex,
drugs, and disaster. Your Assignment is to read the following explanations as to the demise of the
dinosaurs. For each explanation; 1) state whether or not you think it constitutes a valid scientific hypotheses
to explain the demise of the dinosaurs, 2) specifically review at least 4 aspects of each hypothesis and
analyze what can be tested and what can’t be tested, give your data and reasoning for each aspect (as to
why you think it is or isn’t testable). Lastly, determine which explanation you think is the most likely
explanation for the demise of the dinosaurs. Make sure to have a rationale for all your answers.
The dinosaurs died off during a mass extinction event some 65 million years ago. The dinosaurs, along with
thousands of marine animals, and ocean plankton died off relatively quickly. The cause of this mass
extinction event is the still the subject of some debate. The following have all been put forth at various
times to explain the demise of the dinosaurs.
Sex: In the 1940’s a study was conducted on alligators to determine their temperature tolerance. It was
found that small alligators heated up and cooled down quickly and larger alligators heated up and cooled
down more slowly (a function of size to surface area). The researchers speculated that dinosaurs lived in a
time period where they lived close to their optimal temperature range. It is known that a slight warming
trend occurred around the time the dinosaurs died off. The hypothesis is that the dinosaurs warmed up, not
enough to kill them outright, but enough to sterilize them. The testicles of male mammals often function
within a narrow temperature range. It is speculated that the slight increase in temperature sterilized the
male dinosaurs and caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.
Drugs: It is known that flowering plants first evolved toward the end of the dinosaur’s reign. Many of these
plants contain psychoactive agents that can be very harmful to animals. Mammals today generally don’t eat
these flowers because of their bitter taste and they also have livers that work to eliminate the toxic nature of
the plants. The hypothesis is that the dinosaurs could not taste the bitterness that is present in these
psychoactive plants, nor were their livers built to allow them to detoxify the plant and render it less
devastating to them. The conclusion is that dinosaurs ingested the plants and then died of massive drug
overdoses.
Disaster: There is a site in the Yucatan where a large comet hit the earth approximately 65 million year ago.
The hypothesis is that as a result of this comet hitting the earth there was the formation of a huge,
worldwide dust cloud, which blocked sunlight, suppressed photosynthesis and drastically lowered worldwide
temperatures. We do know that impacts or volcanic eruptions will affect worldwide weather patterns for
years after the event. This hypothesis states that the resulting changes in temperature and available
sunlight caused the dinosaurs and a host of other creatures to go extinct.
What are the key things that you learned from this assignment? Note the following areas; 1) what can we
learn with science? 2) how does science work? 3) what can we learn about the past and how can we study
the past? 4) what do the terms; fact, hypothesis, and theory mean in science?
74
Darwin and Lamarck Assignment
Name______________________________
Which scenario reflects Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics and which reflects
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection? Your assignment is to label each scenario, as either Lamarck’s
hypothesis or Darwin’s theory and then to match each numbered key component (listed below) to the
appropriate sentence in the scenario. You can use this sheet of paper and underline each relevant
sentence and then put the appropriate number next to it.
General information for both scenario’s: Two species of birds exist on Daphne Major island in the
Galapagos Islands. The cactus finch’s which eat cactus and the medium ground finch’s which eat seeds.
The beaks of the finches are instrumental in their ability to get food. The size and shape of the finch’s beak
determines what food they are able to eat. The cactus finch’s beak allows them to get the nectar out of
cactus flowers and the medium ground finch’s beak allows them to crack and eat seeds.
Scenario #1 ________________________________________
All of the medium ground finches are very similar in their beak size and shape. A drought hits the island and
there is no rain for 550 days. Most all of the smaller seeds that the medium ground finches eat are
consumed and the medium ground finches start dying off. The only seeds left are quite large and hard.
Some of the medium ground finches are able to change their beak size and adapt to the changing
environment. These finches adapt and change their beaks to be able to crack the only seeds that are left in
the environment, large, hard seeds. The finches that are able to change their beaks are able to survive the
change in their food source and live to produce offspring. The offspring of the surviving finches are born
with the larger beaks that their parents developed in their lifetime. The population of medium ground finches
is now different, it has evolved. The finches now have larger beaks and are able to eat larger and harder
seeds.
Scenario #2 _____________________________________
The population of medium ground finches is highly variable in their individual beak size and shape. Some of
the finches have smaller, shorter, weaker beaks and others have larger, deeper, stronger beaks. A drought
hits the island and there is no rain for 550 days. There is now a limited supply of seeds on the island. Fairly
quickly all of the smaller, easier to crack seeds are eaten. The finches that have smaller, shorter beaks go
hungry and start to die off. The medium ground finches with larger beaks are able to crack the larger,
harder seeds, they live longer and reproduce offspring. The offspring inherit their parents larger beaks. The
population of medium ground finches is now different. Overall a majority of the medium ground finches now
have larger, deeper beaks and there are very few finches with smaller, shorter beaks.
Components of Lamarcks hypothesis (put the number next to the appropriate sentence)
1. Environments change
2. Individuals within a species are similar in the traits that they possess
3. Individuals bodies change in response to environmental change, variation is created during an
individuals lifetime
4. Variation created within an individuals lifetime is inherited by their offspring
Components of Darwin’s theory (put the number next to the appropriate sentence)
1. Variation exists (in traits, among individuals within a species)
2. Competition exists
3. Environment selects desirable traits, as evidenced by fitness (differential reproductive success)
4. Traits are inherited by offspring
5. Environments change
6. Populations evolve over time
1. What is the key trait of selection among the finches?
2. What are the finches competing over?
3. Is the competition within or between species?
75
Protein Synthesis Assignment
Name:______________________
Protein synthesis is the process by which the genetic code puts together proteins in the cell. DNA, residing
in the ___________________of the cell contains the blueprint for each specific protein. The four letters or
“bases” in the DNA “alphabet” (__________________, _________________, _______________,
___________________) combine in various sequences and quantities to form “words” or _____________.
Codons are made up of three “letters” or ______________________ (A, T, C, G) and they form amino
acids. Each amino acid is made up of three letters. There are ____________different amino acids which
combine in various sequences and quantities to formulate the hundreds of thousands of _______________
that make up human beings. The genetic code is redundant in that each amino acid can be coded for in
more than one way (e.g. lysine can be coded for by TTT or TTC).
Hemoglobin is a protein made up of two chains of amino acids. A mutation occasionally occurs in one of the
bases of the second amino acid chain of hemoglobin. This mutation leads of one of the bases (A, T, C, or
G) results in the formation of an abnormal protein. Individuals that have this abnormal protein have a
condition called sickle-cell anemia. Sickle-cell anemia results in the red blood cells becoming distorted and
rigid (sickle shaped) and small clots are formed which deprive the cells of oxygen. Individuals with sicklecell anemia are often ill and before modern medicine often didn’t live to reproduce.
Below are the first twelve amino acids that make up the second chain in the hemoglobin molecule. The
mutation that causes sickle cell resides in this part of the protein. Below is the sequence of amino acids for
normal hemoglobin (each amino acid is indicated by the first three letters of its name):
VAL-HIS-LEU-THR-PRO-GLU-GLU-LYS-SER-ALA-VAL-THR
Assume you are a researcher studying sickle-cell anemia. You have been given two unlabeled samples
of DNA sequences. One is from a healthy individual, and one is from an individual with sickle-cell anemia.
Using the table of amino acids (below) and the sequence of amino acids for normal hemoglobin (above),
determine which strand is normal and which codes for the abnormal hemoglobin. (HINT: Remember that a
codon is a series of three nucleotide bases that code for a particular amino acid).
Leucine: AAT, AAC, GAG, GAC
Serine: AGA, AGG, AGT, AGC
Alanine: CGG, CGA, CGG, CGT
Proline: GGA, GGG, GGT, GGC
Valine: CAT, CAG, CAA, CAC
Glutamic Acid: CTT, CTC
Lyseine: TTT, TTC
Histidine: GTA, GTG
Threnine: TGA, TGG, TGT, TGC
DNA Sequences
1. Individual A: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C T T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A
Amino acids: _____________________________________________________________________
2. Individual B: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C A T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A
Amino acids: _____________________________________________________________________
3. Who has sickle-cell anemia? ________________
4. How did you make this determination? ____________________________________________________
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Genetics Assignment (Punnett squares)
(Print) Name:___________________________
Genetics Problems: Use punnett squares to answer the problems below. Answer each question
completely using percentages to show the probabilities.
1. Cystic Fibrosis is inherited as a recessive disorder. Individuals recessive for the disorder experience
excess mucus production, and respiratory problems/failure. If a female (heterozygous) mates with a male
(homozygous dominant) what is the probability:
a) their 1st child will have the condition _____________? b) their 1st child will be a carrier _____________?
2. Albinism (little or no pigment in skin, hair, eyes) is inherited as a recessive condition. If an albino male
mates with a female who is not an albino, but is a carrier what is the probability:
a) their 1st child will be albino _____________? b) their 2nd child will be an albino _________?
3. Predicting Offspring/ ABO Blood System: The blood types in the ABO system are determined by
three alleles. A and B are codominant alleles, and O is recessive. In the problems below you have the
phenotype of the parents. Do a punnett square for each problem and show the possible genotypes for their
offspring.
a. B (heterozygous) & A (homozygous)
b. O & AB
c. In a recent court case, a man of blood type A was accused of fathering a child of blood type B. The
mother was blood type AB. Could this man have been the father _____________ ? What would his
genotype have to be for him to be the father ____________________?
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Page Two of Genetics Homework (STAPLE!)
The following problems are in regards to traits that are sex-linked.
4. Hemophilia is inherited as an X-linked recessive. If a male who is a hemophiliac marries a female who
is not afflicted (and not a carrier) what is the probability they will have a son who is a hemophiliac ______?
What is the probability they will have a daughter who is a hemophiliac ________?
5. Tooth enamel: A form of defective tooth enamel which leads to brown teeth appears to be inherited as
an X-linked dominant trait. Determine the probability of a son having the defect and then determine the
probability a daughter will have the defect in the following cases:
a) non-afflicted female & affected male,
b) affected female (heterozygous) & non-afflicted male.
Answer the following questions in your OWN words
6. What is represented on the outside of the punnett square? __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
7. What is represented on the inside of the punnet square? ______________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
8. Do problems 1-3 reflect traits that reside on an autosome or on a sex chromosome? ______________
How do you know?
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. How many letters are in the DNA alphabet? ________________________________________________
10. How many “words” (or amino acids) are in the DNA language? ________________________________
11. What happens during meiosis to the parent’s genetic material? ________________________________
12. Why are most sex-linked traits on the X chromosome? ______________________________________
13. What is a codon?____________________________________________________________________
14. What is an allele? ___________________________________________________________________
15. Does the environment play a role in the expression of polygenic traits? _________. Give an example
of a polygenic trait ______________________________________________________________________
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This assignment will be completed in class.
Processes of Evolution Problems
1. Physical anthropologist Eva Hernandez visits the Yamomamo in Venezuela and finds that only
3 individuals in a small village of 85 people have blood type A. Her grandson, Alberto Hernandez,
returns 45 years later and finds that no one in the village has type A blood. Which process of
evolution is likely affecting this population?
2. The allele that causes an altered form of hemoglobin occurs in all human populations as a result
of mutation. Individuals who have one allele for this condition have an increased resistance to
malaria. Individuals with two alleles for this condition have significant medical problems and die
young. This allele has been found in high numbers in certain populations in West Africa, Southeast
Asia and Greece. Why would this allele be in such high numbers in certain populations?
3. In 1959 Daniel Yuh set up a long term study of cataloging the blood types of a group of huntergatherers in the Brazilian rainforest. In 1959 he found there were no individuals with blood type B.
Three generations later, after this group had begun exchanging mating partners with another
group, there were several members with blood type B. Which process of evolution is likely
affecting this population?
4. Britain’s Queen Victoria was a carrier for the allele that causes hemophilia and she passed this
allele on to some of her descendants. However, there is absolutely no evidence of anyone in
Queen Victoria’s ancestry having hemophilia. What is the most likely explanation for her
possessing the hemophilia allele? Which process of evolution likely led to some of her
descendents having this allele?
5. The inhabitants of the island Tristan de Cunha are all descended from one indigenous family
and a few sailors. The incidence of a rare eye disorder is much higher in these islanders than in
other human populations. Presumably, at least one of the original island settlers carried the allele
of the trait. The disorder has an abnormally high frequency in this small population because many
can trace descent from this one member of a small group of colonists. Which process of evolution
likely affected this population in regards to this trait?
79
Sickle Cell Anemia: This is an excellent example of how evolutionary processes work and how
biology and culture interact to affect human populations .
Name____________________
1. What are the symptoms of sickle cell anemia? Do individuals who have two alleles for sickle
cell have sickle cell? Do individuals who have one allele for sickle cell have sickle cell?
2. How many people die each year from sickle cell anemia and what is the average age at which
they die? Does sickle cell anemia affect an individual’s reproductive success?
3. What process of evolution is likely responsible for the origins of sickle cell?
4. What process of evolution is likely responsible for the spread of the sickle cell allele through
inheritance?
5. What process of evolution is likely responsible for the spread of sickle cell through populations?
6. What role does natural selection and the environment play in regards to sickle cell anemia and
humans? What type of data is used to evaluate the relationship between sickle cell, environment
and natural selection?
7. How many people die each year from malaria? Is there a cure or medicines that can prevent
malaria?
8. Is it ever positive to be heterozygous for sickle cell?
9. Is it ever positive to be homozygous for sickle cell?
10. In what type of environment would it would be positive to have no alleles for sickle cell?
11. In what populations is sickle cell prevalent?
12. How has culture affected the spread of malaria and the sickle cell allele? Culture includes the
way in which people get food for survival (the adaptive role of culture) as well as cultural practices
in regards to economics.
13. Which of the four fields of anthropology can be used to help us understand the case of sickle
cell anemia in human populations?
80
Sample problems- to be done in class
Population under study: The Dorje are a community of198 individuals living in a secluded commune in
Nepal. They live in a harsh environment where cold, wind, rain, and snow are frequent and severe
especially in the winter months. The Dorje survive by foraging for food and hunting for small game animals
and so they spend a great deal of time outdoors. The trait under study is hairy nostrils (very hairy!). Hairy
nostrils are a dominant condition. Genotype distribution: HH= 99, Hh= 66, hh= 33
Population under study: 80 humans. Trait under study: sneezing fits in bright sunlight. The population is
located on a small oasis on the edge of a large desert. The population faces frequent threats from roving
bands of armed gangs who will kidnap and/or kill the inhabitants if they find them. The people move
frequently to keep themselves safe. They frequently trade goods with other populations of nomads like
themselves. Sneezing fits in bright sunlight is a recessive trait.
Genotype Distribution: SS= 20, Ss= 52, ss= 8
Hardy Weinberg Assignment Problems: On the due date we will review these problems in class and then
you will turn them in for a grade. You may handwrite the table for each problem (neatly, legibly) but you
must TYPE your answers. This assignment is usually worth a fair number of points. Make sure to take the
time to complete each aspect of this assignment to earn the full points.
For each problem you need to complete the following;
1. Complete a Hardy Weinberg table. Follow the sample problem to know how to complete each table and
answer all of the key questions.
2. Type out your answers to the following. Is change occurring?
3. For each process of evolution speculate as to whether or not the process could be responsible for any or
all of the change in the allele frequencies. Make sure to refer to the definition of each process and the
information that I provided to you for each process. Simply stating “yes or no” for an answer will not earn
you any points.
Homework Problems
1. Population under study: 98 individuals who have agreed to take part in a multi-generational study to
give insights into social group relations. These individuals are isolated in a self-contained environment for
the duration of the study, which is expected to take 100 years. The population is responsible for growing
their own food and periodically they have had significant problems with some crops. Brussel sprouts are
one of the few vegetables that they have been able to grow consistently. Trait under study: ability to taste
PTC. The individuals who have this trait find brussel sprouts to be very bitter tasting. The ability to taste is
a dominant trait.
Genotype distribution: TT= 35, Tt= 36, tt= 27
2. Population under study: 923 coyotes. Trait under Study: color variation within this population called
“mottled coloring.” This population of coyotes have learned to adapt to suburban conditions, often taking
food left out for domestic pets. The coyotes traditionally have had a grayish brown coat color but lately quite
a number of these coyotes have been observed with a mottled coat of various colors. This mottled coloring
often makes it difficult to tell that the animal is a coyote. Mottled coloring has been determined to be a
dominant trait. Genotype Distribution: MM= 200, Mm= 93, mm=630
3. Population under study: 1158 humans. Trait under study: the large toe. This population resides in an
isolated area of the Andes Mountains and survive by foraging for food, hunting small animals and
maintaining small gardens. For several generations there have been a number of individuals born with an
especially large, strong big toe. The individuals born with the extra large big toe are very adept at climbing
steep walls to retrieve condor eggs for food (these eggs are highly valued for both food & status), however
they have not been very good hunters or foragers. Having an extra large big toe is a dominant trait.
Genotype distribution: TT= 255, Tt= 276, tt= 627
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Baboon Studies
Name__________________________________
In your text Park discusses the earlier view of baboons and the current views of baboon behaviors
and social group structures. Even though baboons are __________________________________
and much more distantly related to us than the apes they have been held up as an example of how
early hominins might have lived and survived. Baboons live in woodland, savanna environments,
surviving in large multi-female and multi-male social groups. This was thought to be similar to how
early hominins lived (there is some doubt about this now).
List some of the key features put forth as typical for baboons in the earlier studies:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
List some of the current, nuanced views of baboon behaviors and social group interactions:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Why did the views of baboons change? _____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
The first anthropology book that I read was Shirley Strums “Almost Human.” When Strum did her
research she had conducted the longest ongoing study of baboons at that time. In her book Strum
describes her studies of baboons and how the data that she collected was as odds with the
perceived wisdoms of the day in regards to baboon behaviors and baboon social group
interactions. When Strum went to present her research at various primatology conferences she
was virtually shunned. Strum was one of the first to complicate our understanding of baboons and
to bring forth our current, more nuanced understandings. One of the topics we are covering this
semester is the nature of science, and how science works. Thomas Kuhn wrote “The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions” a seminal book in which he describes how science actually operates based
on his observations.
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Zoo Report- Extra Credit Option
Assignment: Observe two primates (one ape & one monkey) at the zoo for a total of three hours.
Take notes during your observation and then write your zoo report, following the directions below.
Your report must include your notes (I don’t expect them to be completely legible, but I do require
the attachment of the notes to the report).
Zoo Arrival: Select one ape (preferably a great ape but a lesser ape will do) and either one new
world or one old world monkey to observe. Observe each of your selections for at least 1 ½ hours.
Total observation time, 3 hours.
Field Observations: You must take notes during your observations (turn them in with your report).
Your field notes should contain the following information:
 Physical environment: where primates are housed (a cage, outside enclosure, etc.)
 Primates: Describe each primate within the enclosure: sex (if known), relative age (i.e. infant,
juvenile, adult), and general physical appearance. It is helpful to assign a number or name to
each primate to help you organize your study
 Focal Primate: Select one or two primates in each enclosure to focus on for your study (it can
be difficult to record the behaviors of more than a couple primates). Take notes of what you
are observing, recording the actions of the primates. Note taking will be much easier if you use
abbreviations to record your observations.
The following are some examples of abbreviations to use:
G- grooming E- eating R- resting P- playing V- vocalizations A- antagonistic behavior
Report: Review your field notes and write your report (it must be typed). Your report should
contain the following:
 One: name of the zoo where you conducted your observations, the date and time that you
conducted your observation and a general description of the weather (hot, cold, etc.)
 Two: for EACH of the primate groups you observed include the following:
 Scientific and common names of the primates observed. State whether they are an ape
(great or lesser), an old world or new world monkey.
 Brief description of the physical environment where the primates were observed, the
 total number of primates observed & approximate ages and sex if known (this info is
sometimes posted outside of the enclosure)
 A synopsis of the activity that you observed. What were some of the frequent behaviors
that you observed? What type of interactions did the primates engage in? Did they do
anything that surprised you? Did what you observed conflict with what you expected to
see?
Your completed zoo report must include:
a. Name, class day & time
b. Receipt for entrance to the zoo
c. Your field notes
d. Your typed report
You can visit any of the following places to complete your zoo report: Santa Ana Zoo, Los Angeles Zoo, San
Diego Zoo, or the Wild Animal Park
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Human Variation Fieldwork (Race Fieldwork): The purpose of this exercise is for you to explore how individuals
within the United States categorize human variation. Interview ten people and ask them the following questions. You
may interview friends, family members, and fellow students (except students in this class).
Define the term “race” (i.e. what does the
What features or criteria do you use to How
What are three races that you
many
term race mean, what type of
categorize people in regards to what
know of?
categorization is it in regards to humans?)
ethnic or racial group they come
from?
races
are
there?
What is meant by the statement “There are no races only clines” Be prepared to discuss this in class.
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