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A Communication Skills Fundamental for the Pulp and Paper Industry WRITING SKILLS 2 Learner Guide NQF Level 2 Credits: 5 Unit Standard 8964 / 119456 Compiled by: Bardene Thirion Brigitte Els for FIETA Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Writing Skills 2 Unit Standard Unit Standard 8964 / 119456: Write for a defined context Write for a specific audience and purpose Use grammatical structures and writing conventions Adapt language to suit context Learning Outcomes Upon studying this module, the learner will be able to: identify the target audience determine the purpose of writing identify different points of view deciding on the form, tone, style and content of the writing task identify the correct and incorrect use of words and grammar in written text; apply spelling rules; understand the difference between words commonly confused; avoid words and phrases used too frequently; understand how to use a dictionary to check grammar; understand the importance not using complex and foreign words and avoiding too much slang. understand the basic rules for sentence structure; understand the agreement between the subject and verb in sentences; use punctuation conventions appropriately; use linking devices (such as pronouns and conjunctions) to combine sentences; use the active and passive voice to express information in a variety of ways. understand the concept and benefits of short sentences. identify and formulate a topic sentence in a paragraph; US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 2 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 understand the need to structure sentences in such a way that the readers do not lose interest (variety of sentence lengths and types). decide how to define a topic; structure texts in such a way that they have a clearly defined beginning, middle and end. understand the importance of writing “free “ first drafts and then editing your writing; write introductions and endings; write a first draft; proofread and edit your own writing; write a final draft. create written texts in a manufacturing environment: Instructions; journaling; directions, forms, memoranda. Additional Reading Unit Standard 13202 & 8967: Study Skills 1 Unit Standard 8962: Oral Communication 2 Unit Standard 8968: Oral Communication 3 Unit Standard 8974: Oral Communication 4 Unit Standard 8963: Reading Skills 2 US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 3 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: THE BASIC RULES OF WRITING................................................................... 6 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 6 2 TARGET AUDIENCE..................................................................................................... 6 3 4 5 2.1 Targeting your audience ........................................................................................ 7 2.2 Defining the target audience .................................................................................. 7 PURPOSE OF WRITING ............................................................................................... 8 3.1 Purpose, goal or aim .............................................................................................. 8 3.2 What do you want to accomplish? .......................................................................... 9 3.3 Style, form and tone of writing ...............................................................................10 POINT OF VIEW ..........................................................................................................13 4.1 First person point of view ......................................................................................13 4.2 Second person point of view .................................................................................13 4.3 Third person point of view .....................................................................................14 THE CONTENT OF A WRITING TASK ........................................................................14 5.1 Steps to follow when deciding about the content of a written task .........................14 5.2 Brainstorming ........................................................................................................15 5.3 Mind mapping .......................................................................................................15 CHAPTER 2: GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY IN TEXT .....................................................16 1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................16 2 INCORRECT USE OF WORDS AND LANGUAGE.......................................................16 3 2.1 Words often confused or used incorrectly .............................................................16 2.2 Words and phrases that are used too often...........................................................19 2.3 The use of pronouns .............................................................................................21 2.4 The articles "a" and "an" .......................................................................................22 APPLYING SPELLING RULES IN WRITING ................................................................22 3.1 Tips for better spelling ...........................................................................................22 3.2 Spelling rules ........................................................................................................23 4 THE USE OF DICTIONARIES ......................................................................................24 5 COMPLEX AND FOREIGN WORDS ............................................................................26 6 JARGON AND SLANG .................................................................................................27 US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 4 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 6.1 Jargon...................................................................................................................27 6.2 Slang ....................................................................................................................28 CHAPTER 3: WRITING GOOD SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS...................................30 1 2 BASIC RULES FOR SENTENCES STRUCTURE ........................................................30 1.1 Sentence structure ................................................................................................30 1.2 Sentence Fragments .............................................................................................32 1.3 Rules of number (concord) ....................................................................................33 1.4 Punctuation ...........................................................................................................35 1.5 Combining sentences ...........................................................................................38 1.6 Active and passive voice .......................................................................................40 CONSTRUCTING PARAGRAPHS ...............................................................................40 2.1 Characteristics of a good paragraph .....................................................................40 2.2 The benefits of writing short sentences .................................................................41 2.3 Sentence beginnings and clause structure options ...............................................42 2.4 Writing the topic sentence .....................................................................................43 2.5 Variety in sentences..............................................................................................44 CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE AND EDIT TEXTS...................................................................46 1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................46 2 DEFINING A TOPIC .....................................................................................................46 3 STRUCTURING A TEXT ..............................................................................................48 4. 3.1 Introduction, body and conclusion .........................................................................48 3.2 The first draft .........................................................................................................49 3.3 Proofread the final draft.........................................................................................51 WRITING TEXTS IN A MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT .......................................52 4.1 Instructions ...........................................................................................................52 4.2 Journals ................................................................................................................53 4.3 Notices and circulars .............................................................................................53 4.4 Directions ..............................................................................................................54 4.5 Forms ...................................................................................................................55 4.6 Memoranda (memos) ............................................................................................56 US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 5 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 1: THE BASIC RULES OF WRITING By the end of this chapter you will be able to: identify the target audience determine the purpose of writing identify different points of view decide on the form, tone, style and content of the writing task 1 INTRODUCTION If you are not very good at it, writing can be a drag. It's a skill, however, that you need to develop in order to be competitive in today's society. Writing is the major means of communication within any organisation. Up to 30% of work-time is engaged in written communication. It is therefore absolutely vital for you to actively develop the skill of writing and that you learn how to write good presentations, memoranda, reports and letters. Since so much of the communication between you and more senior management occur in writing, a good part of your career may depend upon the quality of your writing. When writing, remember that once something is in written form, it cannot be taken back. There is less room for errors than when one uses spoken language, but the great advantage of written work is that you can think about the message you want to convey before writing it down. You can also check that your language usage, choice of words and style is correct. Good writing takes effort and requires language expertise. In addition, it takes strict attention to all the activities involved in reading. These qualities will ensure written communication that is clear in its contents and its purpose. In this course we are going to look at the principles of good writing skills to help you become more professional when writing documents in the workplace. 2 TARGET AUDIENCE A target audience is the specified audience or group for which a message is designed. Many communication efforts fail because they target everyone in general or no-one at all. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 6 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 The target audience is an important principle used in advertising. It is also important when designing presentations or writing reports, proposals and letters. 2.1 Targeting your audience It is necessary to find the right balance when defining your target audience in such a way that your audience recognises that you are writing or talking specifically to them. This often requires that you narrow down your target audience. Decide who your target audience is going to be. Develop a profile of your intended audience (age, educational level, career or position held, ethnicity, values, interests, Ask yourself where your target audience is situated. Before writing, decide what you want to achieve, what your audience wants to know, or do or how you want them to react to your writing. What do they think about the issue (topic) that you intend writing about? Decide how you would like the audience to perceive your product, service or issue. How will you keep your audience interested in what you have to say? How will you convince them to accept your point of view or consider your suggestions? 2.2 Defining the target audience You were asked, for example to write a report about an accident in your work environment. Put yourself in your audience's shoes. The vocabulary you use, the arguments you present, and even the organisational structure you give in the piece of writing will all depend on what you want to say and who you want to say it to. When defining the target audience, you will ask yourself: Who will read my work? (for example, the management team at the plant where I am working, my peers, the board or directors?) How knowledgeable are the intended readers? Do I have to explain jargon? US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 7 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 (concepts used in the workplace only) Are they familiar with the set-up at work? What do they know about the topic? Is my work meant for internal purposes only or it is going to be send to other plants, or to other areas? What is it that is important to my target audience? How can I make sure that what I have to say becomes important to them? Refer to Unit Standards 8962, 8968, 8974 for more information on targeting the audience 3 PURPOSE OF WRITING Purpose separated. and audience cannot be If you know why you are writing, but don't pay detailed attention to the needs of your audience, you are not successful in your writing. If you have analysed your audience and don't really know what you are writing to them for, you are still not succeeding in conveying the message. Example: The purpose of a corporate person writing a memo will differ from one that is written by an employee of a chemical plant. 3.1 Purpose, goal or aim Purpose is the reason why you are writing. You may write a grocery list in order to remember what you need to buy. You may write a report in order to carefully describe an incident. You may write an argumentative essay in order to persuade someone to change the safety rules on the site. You may write a letter to a newspaper to express your concern about the safety of workers in a chemical plant. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 8 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 When you communicate with other people, you are usually guided by a purpose, goal, or aim: You may want to express your feelings You may want to explore an idea You may want to entertain or amuse your listeners or readers You may wish to inform people or explain an idea You may wish to argue for or against an idea in order to persuade others to believe or act in a certain way You may want to make special kinds of arguments when you are evaluating or problem solving You may wish to mediate or negotiate a solution in a tense or difficult situation Writers often combine purposes in a single piece of writing. Thus, we may, in a business report, begin by informing readers of the economic facts before we try to persuade them to take a certain course of action. 3.2 What do you want to accomplish? Before you write one word, you need to know what you want your writing to accomplish. If you aren't sure what your purpose in writing is, your writing will not be clear. Ask yourself: Are you conveying information to the general public? Are your reporting on a recent project? Is your writing part of an investigation? Do you want your readers to do something when they have finished reading? We often write to convey information to a group of people. Annual reports go to stockholders the company wants to keep happy; proposals are written to persuade people to buy products or services; and, user manuals are written to help people operate devices or assemble pieces of furniture. If the purpose of writing each of these documents is not very clear, the intended audience may not get the message. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 9 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 3.3 Style, form and tone of writing You focus on your purpose when you determine the: 3.3.1 Style Style, which (according to Fielding, 1993), may be defined as “a way of selecting and putting words together for a range of purposes and a range of audiences. It refers to a way of writing or speaking.” Style refers to aspects such as levels of formality, whether it is personal or impersonal active or passive concise or wordy clear or ambiguous concrete or abstract You should use the formal, impersonal style when writing work documents. Use short sentences and paragraphs and no slang. Look at the following examples of extracts from memoranda about the same issue. Study the style and choice of words: Example 1: Hi there Boss! We dropped in to see you about a safety refresher course. Five guys in pain now because they chat all the time and don’t know or obey safety rules. Sorry you were not in! (Watch out! Going out for lunch too often makes your clothes shrink! Just joking) Cheers! The intimate style of communication is used. This style is used among people who know each other very well. In this case it might show lack of respect and it is not suitable for written communication in a work environment. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 10 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Example 2: My department feels that we are in need of a refresher course in safety procedures. We’ve had five accidents last month and called in some experts. They’ve been analysing what’s been going on. What a shock! People haven’t got a clue and don’t care about following safety procedures! This is an example of the use of the casual style. Sentences are short and the writer used casual vocabulary such as “We’ve”, “They’ve” and “haven’t got a clue.” This style is more suitable for oral communication. Example 3: We, in the Bleaching Division, feel that there’s a great need for a refresher course in safety procedures. We are convinced of this need now that we have gone though a report from some experts. They analysed the large number of accidents (five) that occurred last month and came up with surprising answers. This extract uses the consultative style which is less formal. It is suitable for memoranda within a company. It uses the personal pronoun “we”, and simple vocabulary. Note the use of the expression, “came up with”, which is very casual. Example 4: It has been noted by the Management of the Bleaching Division that the need for a refresher course in safety procedures should be regarded as of high priority by our organisation in the near future. This belief has been strengthened by an in-dept investigation by experts of the large number of accidents that occur in the plant during the past month. The document uses the highly formal or frozen style. The impersonal form “it” was used. Passive forms such as “has been noted” and “should be regarded” were used. Avoid this style. It is very difficult to read and make sense of. Example 5: Management of the Bleaching Division has noted the need for a refresher course in safety procedures. This course should be a high priority. A team of experts strengthened our belief when they investigated a large number of accidents that occurred during the past month. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 11 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 This extract uses the formal style. It is written in the active voice and sentences and paragraphs are short. It is easy to read and understand. This style is suitable for all work-related documents. 3.3.2 Tone Tone is important to the success of any piece of writing. Tone can be described as the writer’s attitude towards the reader and the material that is communicated. Tone is mainly concerned with the choice of vocabulary. Tone can be described on scales ranging from friendly to unfriendly; relaxed to stiff and formal to informal. The tone of a report should be neutral, (not taking a particular point of view) whereas the tone of a business letter should be friendly or neutral. In general, the tone used in writing is more formal than in spoken language. 3.3.3 Organisation of your writing Important facts are stated first, followed by explanations or examples. 3.3.4 Kind of evidence to quote The sources that form part of your writing need to be reliable. If you quote incorrect or biased sources or make unqualified assumptions, you are jeopardising your own and the company’s credibility and your superiors will think twice before they ask you to write important documents. 3.3.5 Quantity How much should you write? Decide on which facts to include and illustrate with examples and which facts to omit to suit the purpose of your writing. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 12 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 4 POINT OF VIEW All writing involves Point of View. This means the writer has chosen, based on his / her analysis of the reader(s) and writing situation, a speaker (or voice) for the ideas presented in the letter, memo, or report. Point of View concerns who is explaining or arguing, and its most important rule involves consistency. Once a Point of View is established, it should be continued throughout the writing. Compare the following points of view about reporting back injuries: Worker: “I always have to answer a hundred questions just to get a pain tablet for my back.” Supervisor: “You need to report minor incidents that lead to back pain immediately.” Doctor: “I have treated four people with back injuries in this section last month.” 4.1 First person point of view First Person refers to the use of “I” in explaining or arguing in a letter, memo or report. It is usually used when the writer shares a personal experience, but it can be the perspective of choice because it creates a natural style. The first person is used when an individual’s point of view about an incident or decision is required. Example: This decision, I believe, will ensure that our workplace is safe. 4.2 Second person point of view Second Person refers to the use of “you” in explanations or arguments. Most second person points of view occur in instructions which are meant to be followed. Once that decision is made to use the second person, the writer should remain true to it unless (s)he has a good reason to shift to another point of view. Example: You will receive the revised Safety Procedures by Monday April 22, 2005. You will have an opportunity to respond to it in writing before May 15, 2005. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 13 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 4.3 Third person point of view Third Person Point of View is the preferred perspective for most work-related communication. Third Person does not allow for direct self-expression. An advantage of using the third person is that it is objective in tone and style. First and Second Person cannot easily give an objective sound to business communications. They bring subjectivity and intimacy to tone and style and should only be used in circumstances which require these characteristics. Example: Each applicant will do a practical demonstration during his / her final interview. 5 THE CONTENT OF A WRITING TASK You need to select an effective format (for example letter, report, memorandum) when you are required to write about an issue. After determining the purpose, audience, format and style of a writing task, you need to focus on the message you want to convey. 5.1 Steps to follow when deciding about the content of a written task Decide on the main idea of your writing. The term “main idea” refers to the point or thought being expressed. The main idea is the central thought or message of a piece of writing. Decide how you are going to support your main idea with examples, applications or supporting detail. Brainstorm ideas about the topic. Do a mind map of the basic outline of the document. Every piece of writing consists US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 14 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 of an introduction, the body of the writing and the conclusion. After you have gone through the brainstorming and mind mapping stages, decide on a captivating introduction, the content of your body and effective conclusion. 5.2 Brainstorming Brainstorming is the name given to the generation of new ideas around a specific area. When you use this technique, which remove inhibitions, you will be able to think more freely and move into new areas of thought and you will create numerous new ideas and solutions. Write down all ideas that come to your mind about a topic, even the wild and exaggerated ones. All the ideas are noted down and are not criticised. Only when the brainstorming session is over and you can think of no more ideas, the ideas are evaluated. Decide which ideas are useful and which ideas are not. Organise useful ideas into a mind map. 5.3 Mind mapping Organise your ideas into a mind map. In this way you can plan exactly what you are going to say. You can also decide about the relationship between the different parts of your writing and you can see and check whether you have covered all aspects of the topic you need to write about. For more information on mind maps, see Unit Standards 8963, 13202, 8968 Complete Exercise 1 in your Workbook US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 15 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 2: GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY IN TEXT By the end of this chapter you will be able to identify the correct and incorrect use of words and grammar in written text apply spelling rules understand the difference between words commonly confused avoid words and phrases used too frequently understand how to use a dictionary to check grammar understand the importance of not using complex and foreign words and avoiding too much slang 1 INTRODUCTION Writing is a powerful tool. You need to train yourself in its use to ensure that you are efficient. Reflect on your use of language before it reflects badly upon you. Your aim when writing anything should be to write in a clear, complete and concise way. If your document satisfies these three criteria, then it deserves to be read. In this chapter we will focus on the use of the correct words and language in text. 2 INCORRECT USE OF WORDS AND LANGUAGE 2.1 Words often confused or used incorrectly The following words are often used incorrectly. Study the examples: Lend / borrow I will lend my overalls to you. (Lend to) You may borrow my overalls. (Borrow from) US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 16 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Lay / lie Lay down the rules. Lay the table please. I will lie down a little bit because I am tired. Don’t lie to me! Speak / talk You talk too much. Speak slowly so that I can hear you. Teach / learn I will teach you how to use the equipment correctly. You will learn how to use the equipment correctly. Effect / Affect The effect of the explosion was disastrous. (noun) The explosion will affect productivity in the plant. (verb) Assure / ensure / insure I can assure you that we will organise a workshop on safety procedures. I want to ensure that I pass my course by working hard. You should insure your car in case you have an accident. Little / few There is little sugar left. (Use little for things you cannot count) There are a few pieces of equipment in the toolbox. (Use few for things that you can count) US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 17 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Much / many This is too much work. (Use much for things you cannot count). We don’t have many days off. (Use many for things you can count). Exception: I have little (or much) money left. 2.1.1 Words that sound the same (homophones) but are spelled differently Lose / loose Don’t lose your money. The screws are loose. -ice / ise In the words, advice - advise, device-devise, licence - license, practice-practise each follow the same pattern: the word ending on -ice is a noun, the word ending on -ise is a verb. Examples: We need three hours of soccer practice every week. I practise three hours per week. He gave me good advice. I advise you to go to a doctor immediately. Roles / rolls The role of the negotiator is very important when a company needs to resolve conflict. He played two different roles in the drama. The bread rolls are still fresh. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 18 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2.2 Words and phrases that are used too often 2.2.1 Nice and bad The words nice and bad are examples of words that are used too frequently. There are many other substitutes for these words. Instead of using the word "nice" in the following sentences, try the following alternatives: We experienced an enjoyable (pleasant, lovely) day on the beach. Dessert was delicious (scrumptious, tasty, mouth-watering, and luscious). My wife is a beautiful (pretty, stunning, gorgeous, attractive, good-looking) woman. The kind (pleasant, polite, friendly) lady at the counter helped us quickly. I had a productive (creative, industrious, enjoyable, fruitful, rewarding) day at work. Instead of using "bad" in the following sentences, try one of the following alternatives: I had a horrible (awful, terrible, unpleasant) day at work today. She really has a nasty (spiteful, nasty, unpleasant) attitude. The results were shocking (appalling,, poor, substandard). The fruit is rotten (decayed, mouldy, rancid). She had an unhappy (troubled, difficult, distressing, unpleasant) childhood. This is really a poor (insufficient, mediocre, insignificant) report. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 19 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2.2.2 Filler words or phrases The following words or phrases are often used in speeches or written work and can be regarded as fillers. They don’t contribute to the message of a text, take up space, distract the reader and should be avoided: Read the following ridiculous example of using filler phrases: At this point in time I have studied the problem at grassroots levels and personally I am not convinced that we should carry on with the current methods, in fact I believe that we should leave no stone unturned to solve the problem. In general it boils down to basically starting from scratch to fix the problem. The whole paragraph can be rewritten in a clearer and more concise way: I think we should try another method to fix the problem. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 20 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2.3 The use of pronouns Pronouns are often used incorrectly. Study the following examples: I and me My colleagues and I fixed the problem. (Not me and my colleagues…) You In informal English the pronoun "you" is often used to indicate an indefinite person, not necessarily the reader or listener. Example: When you make a mistake.... It is preferable to use third person in written documents: When one makes a mistake... When a worker makes a mistake.... Other synonyms for this usage of you include a person, people, etc. They / them / their Help them because they want their work to be done quickly. We / us / our We want our work to be done quickly. Are you going to help us? It / they There was an incident when one of the machines broke down. It should be investigated further. (one incident) There were two incidents when machines broke down. They should be investigated further. (two incidents). US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 21 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2.4 The articles "a" and "an" Use "a" if the first letter of the following word begins with a consonant when pronounced. Use "an" if the first letter of the following word begins with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u) when pronounced. Examples: A letter, an application. If the word after "a" or "an" is an abbreviation or a number, then decide whether it begins with a vowel sound when pronounced: Examples: a UPS an 1800 V When the first letter in a word is silent, considers the second letter in the word following the article: Examples: an honour an hour 3 APPLYING SPELLING RULES IN WRITING For some people, spelling is a constant problem. Incorrect spelling distracts the reader and questions the authority of the author. 3.1 Tips for better spelling Computer spell-checking programmes provide great assistance, especially when supported by a good dictionary. Practise your spelling by doing the following: Make a list of words that you are constantly misspelling and refer to this list when you write anything. If you use a computer, use the spell checker to make sure that your document contains no spelling errors. Remember to use the South African or United Kingdom versions and not the US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 22 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 United States version of the spell checker. Consult a dictionary to make sure that words are spelled correctly and used in the right context. 3.2 Spelling rules If you know the basic spelling rules you can eliminate most spelling errors: Spelling rule Examples 1. i before e, except believe, relief after c receive, ceiling when the word sounds like ay neighbour, weigh Exceptions either, foreign, height, leisure, protein, weird and CIEN words like ancient, science 2. Plural nouns Some plural nouns end in -s, report-reports, storey-storeys Others end in -es bus - buses, fox - foxes, glass - glasses; hero - heroes Nouns ending on y are changed into ie in the plural. ability - abilities; mystery – mysteries, story -stories Some nouns ending on f, get only -s hoof - hoofs, scarf - scarves Some nouns ending in - us change to - i in the plural. fungus - fungi, stimulus - stimuli Nouns ending in – um change to –a in the plural. memorandum - memoranda; erratum - errata 3. Two vowels “When two vowels go walking, the first one does the talking.” When there are two vowels in a row, the first usually has a long sound and the second is silent. team (not taem) coat (not caot) people (not poeple) 4. Words with FULL: The word full has a double l. full When the word full is combined with anything else, the second l is omitted. plentiful, beautiful, skilful, a handful, successful. 5. Words with –ABLE US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 23 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Spelling rule Examples Sometimes the –e is left out when the suffix – repute = reputable, value = valuable able is used to form an adjective of a noun Other times the –e is kept knowledge = knowledgeable Other words with -able fashionable, excitable, predictable, available 6. Words ending in -o potato - potatoes, motto - mottoes but dynamo - dynamos, photo - photos 7. Double consonants Many verbs that end with a single consonant have this letter repeated in the spelling for other forms of the verb. drop – dropping - dropped. 8. Days of the week Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday. 9. Put together a list of words that you find difficult to spell. Examples of words commonly misspelled: absence, guarantee, accessible, occurrence, occasion, official, conscience, campaign, accommodate, committee, auxiliary, phenomenon, lightning, rhythm, particular, maintenance, separate. 4 THE USE OF DICTIONARIES Dictionaries can be divided into different categories: There are dictionaries that provide translations from one language into another; some concentrate on a subject field (such as technical or medical dictionaries) and explain terms in that subject field and others provide meanings, uses and explanations of words in one language. Entries in dictionaries are organised strictly alphabetically with guide words in bold at the top of each page to help a reader find the correct entry. A Dictionary (such as the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English) is an invaluable aid to writers to: understand the meaning of a word determine the different contexts in which a word can be used US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 24 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 see example sentences in which the word is used learn how to use words correctly see how a word is pronounced check the form of the verb see how the parts of speech of the word can be used for see different prefixes and suffixes to form other words with the same root find out how the word is used as an adjective or adverb determine the plural form of the word see the comparative and superlative forms of an adjective learn idiomatic expressions in which the word is used Look at the following extract which illustrates the different uses of dictionaries1: pa·per (pā'pər) 1. A material made of cellulose pulp, derived mainly from wood, rags, and certain grasses, processed into flexible sheets or rolls by deposit from an aqueous suspension, and used chiefly for writing, printing, drawing, wrapping, and covering walls. 2. A single sheet of this material. 3. One or more sheets of paper bearing writing or printing, especially: a. A formal written composition intended to be published, presented, or read aloud; a scholarly essay or treatise. b. A piece of written work for school; a report or theme. c. An official document, especially one establishing the identity of the bearer. Often used in the plural. papers A collection of letters, diaries, and other writings, especially by one person: the Madison papers. A newspaper. Wallpaper. A wrapper made of paper, often with its contents: a paper of pins. Slang.: A free pass to a theater. b.The audience admitted with free passes. tr.v., -pered, -per·ing, -pers. To cover, wrap, or line with paper. To cover with wallpaper. 1 (From: The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition) US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 25 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 1. To supply with paper. 2. Slang. To issue free passes for (a theater, for example). 3. To construct (something) in haste and with little forethought: papered together a new coalition of political convenience. Adj. Made of paper. Resembling paper, as in thinness or flimsiness. Of or relating to clerical work: paper duties. 4. Existing only in printed or written form: a. paper profits; a paper corporation. b.Planned but not realized; theoretical. Idioms: in paper With a paperback binding; as a paperback. on paper, in writing or print. In theory, as opposed to actual performance or fact: It is a good team on paper, but its members play poorly together. [Middle English, from Old French papier, from Latin pap[ymacr]rus, papyrus plant, papyrus paper, from Greek papūros.] Pa’per er n 5 COMPLEX AND FOREIGN WORDS Complex words are long words that are not easy to understand Words that contain Latin or Greek roots, for example, may not be familiar to an audience. Simple words help you express your message clearly. Too many complex words are like hurdles in a race, barriers to understanding which slows readers down. Replacing complex words with simpler words whenever possible helps your readers concentrate on your ideas and information. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 26 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Using simple and familiar words wherever possible doesn’t insult your readers’ intelligence but emphasizes clarity rather than formality. You may need to use a more complex word to give a more precise meaning. You may also find some words, such as prohibit or require, are difficult to avoid because of your writing task and subject matter. For example, you may find it easier to keep to simpler words in a memo or letter than in a report or regulation. However, use shorter, simpler words as the basis of your writing and save longer or complex words for when they are essential. Example: Complex: We will endeavour to assist you. Simple: We will try to help you. Foreign words are words imported from another language or subject fields than the language or subject field your audience is familiar with. If you use foreign words, such as the name of a piece of equipment, the term should be explained in the text. 6 JARGON AND SLANG 6.1 Jargon The term, jargon describes any language that is hard to understand because of the following reasons: there are many technical words that the audience cannot understand long or many unfamiliar words are used it contains many unnecessary words that could be omitted in the text it contains long, complicated sentences When writing for an audience who are laypeople (not familiar with your work environment) be careful not to use symbols, abbreviations, terms and phrases that they don’t understand. If you use them, try to explain the symbol or word by using footnotes, a glossary or an explanatory paragraph. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 27 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Look at the following examples of jargon in an industrial environment: Symbols: This sign refers to PPE or Personal Protective Equipment. Somebody who doesn’t work in an industrial environment would not know this sign. Terms: Terms such as chain drive, girth gear and pinion and friction drive are used in a woodyard and refer to drive systems used to power debarking drums. Abbreviations and the context of these abbreviations such as the following need to be explained to a lay audience. A = Accepts stream BSG = Basic specific gravity [ ] F = Feed stream m = mass [kg] mi = mass flow rate [kg/s] R = Reject stream RRm = removal efficiency / reject rate [%] Sentences such as the following should be explained to a lay audience: “The major impetus for the development of ozone bleaching has been the elimination or reduction of chlorinecontaining chemicals.” 6.2 Slang The term Slang refers to words that are used in common talk among friends and colleagues but not suitable for writing and formal occasions. Sometimes slang words are degrading or discriminatory as they categorise people according to stereotypical characteristics according to race, gender or job title. Look at the following example of slang in a note from an employee to his supervisor: “Hi there Boss! I’ll be late today, have to fix my car. I asked John, the new ouk (the whitie with the attitude) to cover for me at the meeting. See ya!” Peter This type of language is not suitable for writing, especially not when you are writing workrelated documents. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 28 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Avoid expressions, such as the following: Instead of write up, used as a noun, rather write: report, essay, document. Instead of hook up use connect. Instead of set up, used as a noun, use: apparatus, system, circuit. Instead of burn out, write: damage, destroy. For more information on jargon, slang, etc. read Unit Standard 8962 Complete Exercise 2 in your Workbook US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 29 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 3: WRITING GOOD SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS By the end of this chapter you will be able to understand the basic rules for sentence structure understand the agreement between the subject and verb in sentences use punctuation conventions appropriately use linking devices (such as pronouns and conjunctions) to combine sentences use the active and passive voice to express information in a variety of ways understand the concept and benefits of short sentences identify and formulate a topic sentence in a paragraph understand the need to structure sentences in such a way that the readers do not lose interest (variety of sentence lengths and types) 1 BASIC RULES FOR SENTENCES STRUCTURE 1.1 Sentence structure If you want to be an effective writer, you need to know the rules or principles of standard written English, the kind of English used in written communication and that often differs from spoken language. Standard written English requires that you adhere to correct sentence structure and punctuation. To understand sentence structure and improve your writing, you need to know the definitions of a verb (predicate), subject, phrase, an independent clause, a dependent clause, and a sentence. Predicate: The action words or verbs in a sentence: Go, play, is eating, were written, work, be has done, is, was, have, etc. Subject: The subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun. Thabile / she, desk / it. e.g. Thabile is a noun. She is a pronoun. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 30 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Object: Some sentences contain an object. You can determine the object in a sentence by asking the question, WHAT? Example: He writes a memorandum. He is the subject, writes the predicate and a memorandum is the object (answer to question, WHAT?) A phrase is a group of words that does not have a subject or a verb, or both. It does not make sense by itself. Example: “…good screening and dewatering…” An independent clause has a subject and a predicate, and can stand alone as a complete sentence. Example: “It rains.” A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but depends on an independent clause to be complete. Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions (after, although, because, before, if, though, unless, until, when, where, who, which, that). Example: “…who was appointed as the manager recently.” (The name of the person needs to be included as well as a phrase or clause to complete the sentence.) A sentence is a group of words containing at least one independent clause and expressing a complete idea. It has a subject and a verb (predicate) and can stand alone. Example of a basic sentence: US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 31 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Some sentences contain an object. Look at the following example: A sentence can be expanded by adding descriptive words such as adjectives and adverbs (words that describe nouns and verbs). adjectival phrases or clauses describe the noun or subject in a sentence. adverbial clauses or phrases describe the predicate in a sentence. Study the following example where a basic sentence was expanded: 1.2 Sentence Fragments Sometimes we use sentence fragments in informal conversations. A sentence fragment looks like a sentence, but it lacks a verb or a subject. Examples: The fax machine with redial capacity. Structuring the text of a report. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 32 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Fragments should be avoided in written work because they distract and confuse readers. In written work, fragments like the previous examples should be rephrased: Examples: The fax machine has a redial capacity. I am structuring the text of a report. 1.3 Rules of number (concord) A verb must agree with its subject in number and in person. A pronoun must agree in number, person and gender with the noun to which it refers. Rules of agreement of subject and verb Rule Examples 1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. Our manager (or he) is fair. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural The workers (they) are tired. 2. Two singular nouns joined by AND will take the plural noun if a single idea is NOT expressed. The conveyor belt and the loading plate are broken. 3. If a single idea is expressed, the verb must be singular. The blue and red overall is the accepted apparel at our workplace. (one overall) The blue overall and the red overall are worn by workers. (two overalls) Bacon and eggs is my favourite dish. (one dish) Our friend and colleague, Mr Cele is here (the same person). 4. In sentences that contain Either …or Neither the workers nor the supervisor is here today. Neither …nor Neither the supervisor nor the workers are here today. Not only … but also The verb agrees with the subject closest to the verb. 5. When sentences are joined together by words such as with, together, like, including, as well as, the verb agrees with the subject further away. This is because these words indicate that a phrase which contains extra US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Our manager as well as the managers from other sections is present. The workers together with their supervisor are present. Learner Guide 33 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Rules of agreement of subject and verb Rule Examples information, which is not part of the main idea, will follow. Johannes, like all the members of his team, is very loyal and sincere. 6. Certain words like the following are always followed by a singular verb: Nothing is impossible. Each of you, everyone, nobody, anyone, everything, someone, somebody, something, nothing, one. Everybody knows how to do it. Each of you is responsible. Nobody works overtime. 7. Certain nouns which appear to be plural take a singular verb: Athletics, billiards, darts, fruit, game, measles, mumps, physics, series, tidings, whereabouts, news. Athletics is my favourite sport. 8. Some nouns always take a plural verb: The pliers are on the table Cattle, people, majority, poultry, goods, pants, scissors, pyjamas, sports, glasses, thanks, trousers, pliers, shots. but: A pair of pliers is on the table. 9. Collective nouns: Singular if the members act as a whole but plural if there is disagreement or if they do not act as a whole (are divided). Mamelodi Sundowns is a great team. 10. A fraction (or part) of one thing IS Only two-thirds of the paper plant is operational. A fraction (or part) of many things ARE The news about his condition is not good. Physics is my son’s favourite subject. The majority of workers are in favour of developing new skills. Mamelodi Sundows are scattered all over the field. Only two-thirds of the paper plants are operational. 11. Much and little always singular; Much has been said about horseplay. Many and few always plural. Little sugar is added. Few people are willing to cooperate. 12. The Pronoun must agree with the noun. The work has to be done. Do it. Work = it. These are my pens. You may borrow them. Pens = them. One must do one’s work and not complain. 13. The word data is plural US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 These data are correct. Learner Guide 34 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 1.4 Punctuation Punctuation is a matter of logic and common sense and should be used to make sense out of a sentence and to indicate stress, intonation and emotive language. Without capital letters, full stops, commas, hyphens and inverted commas one would not be able to make sense out of written work. 1.4.1 Capital letters The capital letter is used when you start a sentence: Make sure that you protect yourself against possible hazards. The capital letter is used for proper names: Johnson, John, Tracy. Countries, languages: He comes from Zimbabwe. He is a Zimbabwean mine worker. Names of book, films, magazines, titles of poems: The Great Gatsby, Terminator. 1.4.2 Titles: King Goodwill Swelitini, Pope John Paul. The full stop (.) Full stops are used: At the end of a sentence: I am going to leave early today. After abbreviations: Prof. etc. A.A. There is a tendency to spell some abbreviations (also known as Acronyms) without full stops: SABC, SAPPI, MONDI Where an abbreviation ends with the same letter as the word for which it stands, no full stop is used: Mr (Mister), Mrs (Mistress), Std (Standard), Rd (Road). 1.4.3 The comma (,) The comma has many used. It is used to indicate shorter stops than full stops. Look at the following examples where commas are frequently used: If used correctly, it makes reading easier. Note the difference between the following two sentences: Mary Anne and Cathy are sisters. Mary, Anne and Cathy are sisters. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 35 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Before and after additional information: Peter, my friend and colleague, was injured yesterday. Arthur, the manager of the Cape Town branch, will be here tomorrow. At the beginning of a sentence to avoid confusion: With the fire spreading rapidly, the workers shouted loudly and started running towards the exits. Finally, the fire brigade managed to extinguish the fire. In direct speech: Mary said, “My job is my first priority.” Use the comma after “yes” and “no”, with “please” and when you address someone directly: Yes, I think so. No, I don’t think so. Pass me the pliers, please. When you mention a list of items: Please write down directions, contact numbers, responsibilities and names of people involved. 1.4.4 The colon (:) The colon is used to: Introduce a list. Make sure that you wear a helmet, protective gloves, overalls and boots when you work in this section. Separate contrasting sentences: To make mistakes is human, to admit your mistakes is divine. To introduce an additional remark for the sake of explanation: You may not enter without an appointment: The manager won’t allow it. 1.4.5 The semi-colon (;) The semi-colon is used to: Separate co-ordinate clauses that are not joined by conjunctions (such as but and because): Peter will leave on Monday; Henry on Friday. 1.4.6 To indicate a contrast. Some were good; some were bad. The hyphen (-) Do not use a space before or after a hyphen. Well-liked. The hyphen is used to: Form compound words: good-looking, arm-length. Compound words containing numbers or half- are hyphenated: half-life, half-width, half-baked, one-half. Words US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 36 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 formed with -free are hyphenated: divergence-free. Words formed by two words with equal functions, so that the compound is a single word with a different meaning: analog-to-digital conversion, one-to-one correspondence. Connect numbers: thirty-six, two hundred and twenty-two. Express direction: south-east. Avoid confusion: wellliked should be well-liked. 1.4.7 The dash ( - ) Leave a space before and after a dash. And then – suddenly – the machine erupted in flames. The dash is used to: Show that a word is unfinished or left out: Mr M – report the crime. Show hesitation: “I was –um – um – at home, Sir.” Mark off groups of words added in explanation: I feel sure – and I have said so before – that he is capable of working in this section. 1.4.8 Parenthesis (or brackets) Brackets ( ) are used to add a definition or an explanation to a previous word: These men (engineers and technicians) are well-qualified. 1.4.9 The exclamation (!) and question mark (?) Question marks are used at the end of direct questions: “Who is the new operator?” Exclamation marks are to be used sparingly. They are used to express: Emotions such as anger, pity, surprise, fear: “How dreadful!” “Ouch!” Strong commands: Stop! You can’t go in there. 1.4.10 Inverted commas (" ") Inverted commas are used: At the beginning and end of quotations: “People only see what they are prepared to see.” Ralph Waldo Emerson said. For direct speech: John asked, “Where would you like to start?” To enclose titles of books, poems, newspapers, etc. “The Star”, “Organic Chemistry”. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 37 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Single inverted commas are used inside inverted commas: “Have you read ‘Principle-centred Leadership’ by Stephen Covey?” 1.4.11 The apostrophe (‘) The apostrophe is used: To form the genitive (possessive case): The operator’s helmet protected him during the explosion. James’s helmet protected him. The boy’s toys were scattered on the floor. (one boy). The boys’ toys were scattered on the floor (more than one boy). It is never used in plurals: CVs, radios, CDs, etc. 1.5 Combining sentences 1.5.1 Run-on sentences and comma splices A run-on sentence is formed when two independent clauses are joined without a conjunction or without punctuation. A comma splice is formed when two independent clauses are incorrectly connected with a comma instead of being separated into two sentences or joined with a conjunction or a semicolon. Run-on sentences and comma splices should be avoided because of the following reasons: They … are hard to read confuse the reader suggest that you are careless, and indicate that you do not know what a sentence is 1.5.2 Revising run-on sentences and comma splices There are several ways to revise run-on sentences and comma splices: Use a full stop between the independent clauses Insert a semicolon between the independent clauses, by placing a comma and a coordinating conjunction between the independent clauses, or Use a subordinating word to make an independent clause a dependent clause. Example: Moses Molefe, who is our supervisor, is a man of his word. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 38 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Use a comma and a conjunction (and, but, yet, nor, for, or, so) between independent clauses. Example: The operator reported a leak, but he couldn’t avoid an accident. Use a full stop or a semicolon between the independent clauses. Example: The operator reported a leak; he avoided an accident. Use a semicolon plus an adverb (also, furthermore, however, nevertheless, similarly, therefore, next, finally, indeed, certainly) or a transitional expression (as a result, in fact, at the same time, in conclusion) between the independent clauses. Example: Peter and his supervisor, Mr Skosana, discovered the leak; however, it was too late to save the machine. Revise one independent clause into a dependent clause. Example: Radium, which can cause cancer, is also used to cure cancer. 1.5.3 Transition words and phrases Transition words and phrases help establish clear connections among ideas and ensure that sentences and paragraphs flow together smoothly, making them easier to read. Use the following words and phrases to indicate that more will follow: information Besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover an example: for example, for instance, in particular, particularly, specifically, to demonstrate, to illustrate a purpose or reason: for fear that, in order to, so that, with this in mind contrast or comparison: although, however, in comparison, nevertheless, whereas, yet, on the other hand a time shift or a particular time frame: after, before, currently, finally, eventually, during, simultaneously, soon a summary: briefly, overall, to summarise US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 39 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 a conclusion: in conclusion, therefore, so, given these facts 1.6 Active and passive voice English use two voices: Active and passive. The following examples show the difference: Active: The operator wears protective glasses. Passive: Protective glasses are worn by the operator. It is better to use the active voice and writers and speakers should use it when possible. The passive voice makes writing less direct. The passive voice is acceptable when a report has to be written impersonally. An impersonal style and the passive voice often go together, as in the following sentence: It was recorded by Mr Bengu that the containers in Zone A are leaking. The ideal style for a report, however, is an impersonal, active style. Example: Mr Bengu and Ms Thompson examined the containers in Zone A. and found that they were leaking. a writer wishes to emphasise a key point, such as in: The regulations have been broken once again. This sentence emphasises the regulations. When you wish to remain neutral in a potentially difficult situation: The form was returned unsigned. 2 CONSTRUCTING PARAGRAPHS 2.1 Characteristics of a good paragraph A paragraph can be defined as two or more sentences that are grouped together and which contains only one main idea. A paragraph contains one topic sentence and more sentences that elaborate the main idea. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 40 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Every paragraph in a document should justify itself; it should serve a purpose. A paragraph should convey a single idea. There should be a statement of that key idea followed by some of the following: development of the idea an explanation or analogy an illustration support with evidence contextual links to reinforce the structure. Coherence in paragraphs is extremely important. The subject matter should be arranged in a logical manner. One way in which we can achieve coherence is by linking sentences correctly with words such as otherwise, on the contrary, instead, however, although, etc. Another way is to arrange the sentences logically so that unity is achieved. Example: What is Kraft paper?2 In 1883, a German inventor named Carl Dahl discovered that adding sodium sulphate to the soda process produced a very strong pulp. The discovery produced the Kraft process. Kraft means strength in German. During the early 1900s, the Kraft process became the most important pulping process. 2.2 The benefits of writing short sentences Avoid long sentences. A sentence is a unit of information. When we read, we process the information when we reach the full stop. If the sentence is too long, we lose the information either because of our limited attention span or because the information was poorly set out. Information needs to be broken up into smaller sentences which would better have kept the attention of the reader. Shorter sentences reinforce the original message with greater clarity and simplicity. 2 From www.ToiletPaperWorld.com US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 41 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Compare the following examples3. Paragraph 2 is easier to read and understand because the sentences are shorter and the punctuation more effective. Paragraph 1: The whiteness of pulp is measured by its ability to reflect monochromatic light in comparison to a known standard, usually magnesium oxide; which is measured by the Zeiss Elrepho brightness meter which provides a diffuse light source. Fully bleached sulphite pulps can test as high as 94, and unbleached kraft pulps as low as 15 Elrepho units. Paragraph 2: The whiteness of pulp is measured by its ability to reflect monochromatic light in comparison to a known standard (usually magnesium oxide). The Zeiss Elrepho brightness meter provides a diffuse light source. Fully bleached sulphite pulps can test as high as 94 and unbleached kraft pulps as low as 15 Elrepho units. 2.3 Sentence beginnings and clause structure options A writer has many options when structuring sentences. The meaning of a sentence can be changed by changing the beginning. Study the following sentences: Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper. Although toilet paper was first used in China, Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper. After it had been founded in 1879, Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper. When Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper, nobody could imagine that it would become such a great consumer product. Before Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper, people had to use other methods for personal hygiene. Use a variety of beginnings when constructing a paragraph. Make sure that you describe something adequately by adding descriptive words. 3 Adapted from SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper. Pulpmaking N4 Book 2 US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 42 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Read the following paragraph in which the writer started all sentences in the same way. Employees don’t use the fax machine properly. The fax machine was serviced last week. The fax machine broke. The fax machine had to be repaired. We had to rely more on e-mail. We bought a new fax machine. The new fax machine can also send and receive e-mail. Consider the same paragraph that was rewritten. Descriptive words were added and the style and length of sentences were varied: Despite the fact that it was serviced last week, the fax machine broke unexpectedly. We had to rely more on e-mail but soon realised that we needed a new machine. After considering all the options we bought a new one. The new machine also has e-mail options. 2.4 Writing the topic sentence The topic sentence expresses the main idea in the author’s words. Any person can come up with the main idea for a passage, but only the author of the passage can create the topic sentence. The topic sentence is usually the first or second sentence of a paragraph. Example: You need to write a memorandum about a year-end function that you are organising. The main idea is to inform everybody about the function. Topic sentence: Our annual year-end function will take place on Friday 5 November at 19h00. You will then support this topic sentence by elaborating further and discuss the venue, appropriate dress code, and details of the evening. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 43 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Supporting sentences 2.5 Variety in sentences In any written document sentences should be varied. This means that all the sentences in a paragraph cannot be the same length. Shorter sentences should be alternated with longer ones to keep the reader interested in what you have to say. Don’t start all sentences in the same way. Example: A MAGICAL ARABIAN NIGHT Our year-end function will take place on Friday 5 November at 19h00. Let us celebrate the year in style! As an ABC Industries employee, you are invited to join in an evening of vibrant music, dance and magic. Enjoy the fascinating rhythm and exotic tastes of Arabia. Feast on Arabian cuisine and dance your heart out. Belly dancers will lead the way! You will receive one free ticket but a cover charge of R100, for your partner or spouse, will be expected. RSVP before 23 October. Don’t miss out! Be there! Complete Exercise 3 in your Workbook US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 44 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 ASSESSMENT: PARAGRAPH Criteria Content (4x2) (8) Message and point of view supported by relevant examples or arguments. Language usage (4x2) (8) Correct punctuation. Sufficient vocabulary Sentence structures grammatically correct Correct spelling. Sentences of varied length are used. Form (4) The paragraph contains one main idea, one topic sentence with supporting sentences. Level 4 Excellently achieved 4 marks Level 3 Achieved 3 marks Level 2 Nearly achieved 2 marks Interesting, imaginative and original Content meets basic requirements. Content lacking in some areas – more detail is needed. Content not sufficient for task, requirements were not met. Wide range of vocabulary used, only one or two minor language errors Vocabulary sufficient for task, a few minor language errors. Limited vocabulary, a number of language errors Very limited vocabulary, major language errors. Paragraph meets all the requirements. One minor lapse A few errors Paragraph meets none of the requirements. Total: Level 1 Not achieved yet 1 mark / 20 Comments: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Assessed by: US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Date: Learner Guide 45 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE AND EDIT TEXTS By the end of this chapter you will be able to: decide how to define a topic structure texts in such a way that they have a clearly defined beginning, middle and end understand the importance of writing “free “ first drafts and then editing your writing write introductions and endings write a first draft proofread and edit your own writing write a final draft create written texts in a manufacturing environment: Instructions; journaling; directions, forms, memoranda 1 INTRODUCTION You may be afraid of writing and procrastinate until the night before that report or assignment is due. When you procrastinate, you put a lot of stress on yourself, you get so tired and feel so pressurised that you do a sloppy job. You forget to proofread, or get so tired that you cannot see difficult ideas, faulty reasoning and missing commas. When your work is criticised or you get an unsatisfactory mark, you vow that you will never again put things off until the last minute. How can you get into the habit of delivering good written tasks? The most difficult part of any assignment is to get started! In this chapter we are going to discuss the methodology of putting together a good piece of writing. 2 DEFINING A TOPIC The first step in writing any document is to define the topic. You need to know exactly what you are going to write about before you start. Defining your topic is an extensive process in which you think about the topic, determine the purpose of your writing, the objectives you want to achieve, different points of view to be considered and questions you need to answer US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 46 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 When you define your topic, consider some of these questions: What is the subject that information is needed for? From what point of view will the subject be approached? What is relevant to the subject and what is not? What is central to the subject? What do the readers already know about the topic? What do the readers need to know? Is general, technical or scientific information needed? What terms or concepts need to be explained? For what purpose is the information needed? How much information is needed? What connections do you need to make? When you have carefully considered the different sides of your subject, write down a statement or question that summarises the main idea of the document, for example, your manager asked you to write a report about one of the machines which had become nonoperational during your shift last night. You may formulate a statement like the following: Breakdown of the XYZ machine in Section 2 on 23 March or you may prefer to formulate a question: Why did the XYZ machine in Section 2 break on 23 March? This statement or question is the focal point of your writing. You need to do a study of relevant documents or literature (such as shift reports, the machine’s manual, previous breakdowns, service record, books on the topic, the Internet etc.) and conduct interviews with co-workers to gain information for your report. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 47 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Make notes about your research and organise your notes into categories. Take a note pad and jot down ideas. Keep a journal that you can draw upon for that interesting perspective toward the topic. One very effective method for thoroughly analysing the topic and writing down your ideas for later use is creating a concept map (mind map). With a concept map you can visually express the concepts and ideas and their relations to each other. Use a thesaurus to make sure that you use technical terms correctly. 3 STRUCTURING A TEXT 3.1 Introduction, body and conclusion A writing piece (like an essay, report, letter or article) consists of an introduction, a body and a conclusion. When planning any piece of writing you need to determine how it is going to start and end and what the main content (body) is going to be. The introduction is the first paragraph of the paper. It often begins with a general statement about the topic and ends with a more specific statement of the main idea of your paper. The purpose of the introduction is to let the reader know what the topic is inform the reader about your point of view arouse the reader's curiosity so that he or she will want to read about your topic A lot of people get stuck on the introduction. If you are one of them, try to jump to the first paragraph and go on from there. You can go back later and write the introduction. Similarly, you can skip any of the paragraphs while writing the first draft. If you get stuck, move on and then go back to work on it in the second draft / editing stage. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It consists of a number of paragraphs in which you develop your ideas in detail. Limit each paragraph to one main idea. Prove your points by using specific examples, arguments and quotations. Use transition words to ensure a smooth flow of ideas from paragraph to paragraph. Make sure that you understand the topic researched the topic thoroughly exhausted the topic within the terms of reference you were given US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 48 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 emphasised certain factors and aspects interpreted data compared facts, points of view, etc. evaluated different points of view arrived at your own independent conclusions presented the points in your argument in a logical, reasoned flow summarised, reached a logical conclusion and were able to make recommendations The conclusion is the last paragraph of the paper. Its purpose is to summarise your main points, leaving out specific examples or to restate the main idea of the paper. The reader must know your purpose in writing this paper. Ask yourself what you have accomplished, such as providing a broader context for the topic, propose a course of action, offer a new perspective on the topic, or end with an interesting twist. Did you leave your reader with something to ponder about? 3.2 The first draft Once you have done your research and planned your outline, the best way to think about your piece of writing is to write it. Seeing your thoughts written down allows you to regard them critically and objectively, and putting one sentence down will inspire another one. Have your notes, your plan, and any other resource materials you need in front of you. If you have done your planning and preparation on a computer, it is best to print out those materials so that you can see them while you are working. After you have prepared your ideas and written a plan / outline, you are ready to start writing your first draft. Now that you are ready, sit down and try to write the draft in one go. Start writing the rough draft at least a week before the writing task is due. In this way, you leave yourself plenty of time to make the necessary changes or improve on your original work. If you can let yourself get into the flow of writing, your words will come more easily and US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 49 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 you are more likely to find connections between the ideas. Allow yourself to explore the ideas as you go. A mistake we often make is thinking that once we have written a draft, the task is done. The first draft is only a part of the whole writing process that leads to a finished, presentable, and hopefully excellent piece of writing. The idea of the first draft is to get the ideas out, to flesh out your answer, and to give you some content to shape and change into a finished product. You may need to write a number of drafts in order to get to that final product. Or, possibly, if you have really thought through your ideas and planned well, you may only need to write one draft that you then edit. It depends on what happens in the first draft - and it is best not to expect too much or too little from it. The main idea of writing a first draft is to write the document as a flowing whole and to really let the ideas and words splash out onto the paper. At this stage of writing, DO NOT spend time fixing anything. DO NOT change anything. DO NOT even consider bothering about your spelling or grammar. You will fix and change (edit) in the next stage. 3.2.1 Revising, editing and rewriting the first draft The writing process can be summarised as follows: US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 50 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Write in your own words. It is important that your document does not consist of chunks lifted from various sources, clumsily linked together. Keep your reader in mind. Ask yourself, "Could someone else understand what I am saying?" Read through your first draft and edit your work. Check the spelling and language structures. Reread sentences. Do you need to reformulate some of the sentences so that the message is clearer and more concise? Read the whole document – are the arguments logical? Pay particular attention to layout and numbering. Number your pages as well as the various chapters, sections and sub-sections of your essay. The easiest way to number is as follows: Use the decimal system when numbering different sections. It is considered good practice to number only up to the third level, e.g. 1.1.3. Thereafter it is better to use (a), (b) etc., or just to use bullets. Long number hierarchies become difficult to read. Read your paper out loud. This sometimes makes it easier to identify writing that is awkward or unclear. Have somebody else read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's unclear or confusing. It is often very difficult to be objective about your own writing. Be sure to acknowledge all help you received and make sure there is no conflict of interest if you work with someone else. Rewrite your first draft after you have corrected all the mistakes. 3.3 Proofread the final draft The final touches create the final impression. Remember the following: Type your document in double or one-and-a-half line spacing. Pages should be numbered. Use a dictionary or the spell check facility on the word processing software; Use headings and sub-headings; US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 51 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Make sure that headings are the same style throughout the whole document and that they are correctly numbered; Look for careless errors such as incorrect punctuation, subject-verb agreement and capitalisation. Limit your use of passive voice sentences. Make sure that the final draft is neat and that it looks professional. 4. WRITING TEXTS IN A MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT 4.1 Instructions Instructions contain a step-by-step explanation of a process. Instructions are written in a formal style. Verbs in the imperative mood (command style) should be used. Instructions usually start with the words open, assemble, test, store, install, etc. Instructions: help people to do things on their own with guidelines ensure that all staff know what to do in specific circumstances ensure that all staff do the same jobs in the same way have set procedures to follow promote safety help people to get the best use of products Instructions should tell people: what to do or what not to do how to do something where to do something how much has to be done what is dangerous about what they are doing US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 52 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Example4: Fabric cleaning steps 1. Drape a piece of soft wet felt on the fabric and, with the fabric on the crawl, spray the cleaning solution onto the felt for even distribution across the machine width. 2. Manufacture a tray which fits under a fabric return roll and apply the solution as the fabric passes over the roll surface. The tank or tray should be continually topped up. 3. With a re-circulatory system, chemicals are sprayed onto the fabric and the excess is collected and re-circulated. 4.2 Journals Journalling is a form of reflection that is often used for study purposes. Journal entries can spark discussions and reveal gaps in learners' understanding of the material. Journal entries involve short summaries or analyses of texts, or are a testing ground for ideas for student papers and reports. Journalling in the work environment provides a day-to-day account of the progress of work, notes important events that happen or gives information about how machines operate or notes about the behaviour of an individual. 4.3 Notices and circulars Notices and circulars are written for a general audience. A notice on a board should be designed to attract the attention of all who pass it because they are competing with many other notices for the attention of people who pass by. Notices should contain a heading which tells the reader what it is about, an introduction and the main message written in point form. 4 Adapted from SAPPI N4 Papermaking: Machine clothing, Doctors, Showers & Roll Crowning. Book 7/7 US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 53 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Example: PROCEDURE IN CASE OF ON-THE-JOB INJURIES All Staff THIS NOTICE TELLS YOU WHAT TO DO IF A SOMEONE IS INJURED WHERE TO GO IF AN INJURED PERSON NEED HELP What do you do when a worker is injured? The worker should stop working immediately. Inform the supervisor. Take him/ her to the medical room. If the worker cannot be moved, ask him/ her to lie down and call the sister on duty. Her number is 4589. Administer First Aid if case of excessive bleeding, heart failure. There is a First Aid Kit in every area. Where do you go? The medical room is on the 2nd floor of Block B. Do not move a worker with serious injuries. Enquiries: J. Mahlangu (Tel 5490) 4.4 Directions You may be required to write the directions from one specific spot on a map to a certain place, or to work out a route. Remember to … be brief, explicit, logical, business-like and informative write clearly and do not use emotive language give landmarks. Start with a known landmark, such as a school, well-known shop, the reception area of your company, etc.; US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 54 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 use the simplest route and mention street names include maps and a telephone number and name of a person that could be called for more information Refer to Unit Standard 8963 for more information on instructions, notices, circulars and directions 4.5 Forms You are often required to complete forms such as tax returns, schedules, shift reports, requisition forms, job applications and application for accounts, club memberships and service records. Make sure that you know what information you need to fill in. Complete all the parts of forms that you are required to do. Use legible, clear style and complete in black ink because sometimes forms need to be copied. Use short sentences. Print, or if you are typing the form, always use a standard font such as Times New Roman or Arial, and never set the size less than eleven points. Be sure to write in clear, proper sentences. Use the third person point of view. You may use the first person when you submit "supporting statements" such as “I have found that…” These are only submitted when the employer requests your personal opinion or results of an investigation. If a question doesn’t apply to you, write N/A or Not Applicable in the space provided. Proofread the information after finishing to ensure that you have filled in all the details. Attach documents (such as a CV, copy of ID, schedules, etc.) requested in the form. US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 55 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 4.6 Memoranda (memos) Memoranda are messages written inside organisations. They are used to: communicate the same information to a group of people who have to attend a meeting inform people about company policies summarise points made in a conversation or meeting confirm decisions or agreements keep people informed about events in the company make sure staff members are informed about an issue A memorandum has a fixed format. Look at the following example: SAPPI PAPER5 Memorandum To All supervisors Date: 23 April 2005 From: J. Cele, Training Manager SUBJECT: MANUAL HANDLING Back injuries account for the highest number of employee injuries annually. Please ensure that * employees are taught correct techniques. They should be aware that any back pain should be reported immediately. * large loads, or high volume manual lifting per shift should be avoided. * load size and shape should be assessed and the method determined to handle it appropriately – i.e. by hand or mechanically. * lifting and twisting must be avoided. Lift, move feet, face drop area and lower. * objects required to be lifted repetitively should be located in the reach area between shoulder and knee height. 5 Information taken from SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper Loss Control N6 Book 3/3 US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 56 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 * appropriate PPE (e.g. gloves, hard hats) should be provided. * pushing and pulling loads can also place excessive strain on the back, and correct techniques and equipment should be used, after training has been given. * drop and pick-up areas should be designed to accommodate unrestricted work flow without excessive handling. J. Cele Complete Exercise 4 in your Workbook US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 57 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 ASSESSMENT: INSTRUCTIONS Criteria Level 4 Excellently achieved 4 marks Form and style: (4) Professional tone and style. Written in imperative (command) style Action verbs are used. Correct language usage. Content: (4) Contains a heading; Logical presentation of steps; Steps are complete; Written in point form; Main points are numbered; Good research work. Level 3 Achieved 3 marks Level 2 Nearly achieved 2 marks Level 1 Not yet achieved 0-1 mark All criteria in the category were covered. Almost all criteria in the category were covered. About half of the criteria in the category were covered. None or almost no criteria in the category were covered. Facts were brilliantly presented, content exceeded the basic requirements. Complete and detailed. Basic requirements were met. A few of the criteria were covered, but details are incomplete. None or almost no criteria in the category were covered. Incomplete/ content. Total: /8 Comments: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Assessed by: US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Date: Learner Guide 58 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 3 Write directions for someone of how to get to your section of the plant. Your starting point will be one of the gates at the entrance. Remember to include the directions and assessment rubric in your portfolio of evidence. Include words like turn, continue, right, left, east, west, south, north, etc. Mention landmarks like names of buildings. Ask one of your colleagues to assess your work according to the following grid: DIRECTIONS OR X Were the following included? Names of areas, buildings, streets? Landmarks? Verbs like turn…, continue…, stay…, walk/ drive…? Directions such as north, east, west, south, north-west, south-east, etc.? Starting and ending points? TOTAL: 10 Score 2 marks: Achieved 1 mark: Partially achieved 0 marks: Not yet achieved. Learner’s own answer. 4. Write a memorandum entitled, Unsafe practices, which has to be distributed to all employees in your section. Use the active voice to write the memorandum and include it to your portfolio of evidence. Ask one of your colleagues to assess your work according to the following rubric: US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 59 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 ASSESSMENT: MEMORANDUM Criteria Form and style: (4) Mentions the names of the receiver and sender and date; Signature of sender included; Professional tone/ style; Content: (4x2) (8) Contains a heading; Logical flow of arguments; One central idea; Good research work; Written in point form. Language usage: (4) Correct use of language structures, punctuation, adequate vocabulary; Level 4 Excellently achieved 4 marks Level 3 Achieved 3 marks Level 2 Nearly achieved 2 marks Level 1 Not yet achieved 0-1 mark All criteria in the category were covered. Almost all criteria in the category were covered. About half of the criteria in the category were covered. None or almost no criteria in the category were covered. Facts were brilliantly presented, content exceeded the basic requirements. Complete and detailed. Basic requirements were met. A few of the criteria were covered, but details are incomplete. None or almost no criteria in the category were covered. Incomplete/ content. Comprehensive vocabulary, excellent use of language structures. Good command of language structures and vocabulary, a few minor errors. Many language errors, vocabulary is insufficient. Major language errors, Learner didn’t yet master language structures. Active voice used. Total: / 20 Comment: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...................................................................... ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........................................................................................ Assessed by: US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Date: Learner Guide 60 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 BIBLIOGRAPHY American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Fielding, M., 1993: Effective Communication in Organisations. Preparing messages that communicate. Cape Town: Juta & Co. Ltd. SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper: Loss Control N6 Book 3/3. SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper: Papermaking N3. SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper. Pulpmaking N4 Book 2. Websites Stander, R.B., 2000.Technical Writing. http://www.rbs0.com/tw.htm. UVIC English. The UVic Writer's Guide. The Department of English, University of Victoria, 1995 http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/EssayWritingFirstDraft.html WTC: Writing the first draft. http://pratt.edu/~wtc/firstdraft.html Writing the report/ assignment. http://www.lib.uct.ac.za/infolit/draft.htm Effective Letter Writing. http://www.kanten.com/styleguide/writing.html Library Tutorial University of Helsinki Searching information. Defining your topic. http://www.opiskelijakirjasto.lib.helsinki.fi/koulutus/libtut/4searching_2.html http://www.nampak.co.za http://www.toiletpaperworld.com US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2 Learner Guide 61