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A Communication Skills Fundamental for the Pulp and Paper
Industry
WRITING SKILLS 2
Learner Guide
NQF Level 2
Credits: 5
Unit Standard 8964 / 119456
Compiled by:
Bardene Thirion
Brigitte Els
for
FIETA
Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005
Writing Skills 2
Unit Standard
Unit Standard 8964 / 119456: Write for a defined context

Write for a specific audience and purpose

Use grammatical structures and writing conventions

Adapt language to suit context
Learning Outcomes
Upon studying this module, the learner will be able to:

identify the target audience

determine the purpose of writing

identify different points of view

deciding on the form, tone, style and content of the writing task

identify the correct and incorrect use of words and grammar in written text;

apply spelling rules;

understand the difference between words commonly confused;

avoid words and phrases used too frequently;

understand how to use a dictionary to check grammar;

understand the importance not using complex and foreign words and avoiding too
much slang.

understand the basic rules for sentence structure;

understand the agreement between the subject and verb in sentences;

use punctuation conventions appropriately;

use linking devices (such as pronouns and conjunctions) to combine sentences;

use the active and passive voice to express information in a variety of ways.

understand the concept and benefits of short sentences.

identify and formulate a topic sentence in a paragraph;
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
understand the need to structure sentences in such a way that the readers do not
lose interest (variety of sentence lengths and types).

decide how to define a topic;

structure texts in such a way that they have a clearly defined beginning, middle and
end.

understand the importance of writing “free “ first drafts and then editing your writing;

write introductions and endings;

write a first draft;

proofread and edit your own writing;

write a final draft.

create written texts in a manufacturing environment: Instructions; journaling;
directions, forms, memoranda.
Additional Reading
Unit Standard 13202 & 8967: Study Skills 1
Unit Standard 8962: Oral Communication 2
Unit Standard 8968: Oral Communication 3
Unit Standard 8974: Oral Communication 4
Unit Standard 8963: Reading Skills 2
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: THE BASIC RULES OF WRITING................................................................... 6
1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 6
2
TARGET AUDIENCE..................................................................................................... 6
3
4
5
2.1
Targeting your audience ........................................................................................ 7
2.2
Defining the target audience .................................................................................. 7
PURPOSE OF WRITING ............................................................................................... 8
3.1
Purpose, goal or aim .............................................................................................. 8
3.2
What do you want to accomplish? .......................................................................... 9
3.3
Style, form and tone of writing ...............................................................................10
POINT OF VIEW ..........................................................................................................13
4.1
First person point of view ......................................................................................13
4.2
Second person point of view .................................................................................13
4.3
Third person point of view .....................................................................................14
THE CONTENT OF A WRITING TASK ........................................................................14
5.1
Steps to follow when deciding about the content of a written task .........................14
5.2
Brainstorming ........................................................................................................15
5.3
Mind mapping .......................................................................................................15
CHAPTER 2: GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY IN TEXT .....................................................16
1
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................16
2
INCORRECT USE OF WORDS AND LANGUAGE.......................................................16
3
2.1
Words often confused or used incorrectly .............................................................16
2.2
Words and phrases that are used too often...........................................................19
2.3
The use of pronouns .............................................................................................21
2.4
The articles "a" and "an" .......................................................................................22
APPLYING SPELLING RULES IN WRITING ................................................................22
3.1
Tips for better spelling ...........................................................................................22
3.2
Spelling rules ........................................................................................................23
4
THE USE OF DICTIONARIES ......................................................................................24
5
COMPLEX AND FOREIGN WORDS ............................................................................26
6
JARGON AND SLANG .................................................................................................27
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6.1
Jargon...................................................................................................................27
6.2
Slang ....................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 3: WRITING GOOD SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS...................................30
1
2
BASIC RULES FOR SENTENCES STRUCTURE ........................................................30
1.1
Sentence structure ................................................................................................30
1.2
Sentence Fragments .............................................................................................32
1.3
Rules of number (concord) ....................................................................................33
1.4
Punctuation ...........................................................................................................35
1.5
Combining sentences ...........................................................................................38
1.6
Active and passive voice .......................................................................................40
CONSTRUCTING PARAGRAPHS ...............................................................................40
2.1
Characteristics of a good paragraph .....................................................................40
2.2
The benefits of writing short sentences .................................................................41
2.3
Sentence beginnings and clause structure options ...............................................42
2.4
Writing the topic sentence .....................................................................................43
2.5
Variety in sentences..............................................................................................44
CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE AND EDIT TEXTS...................................................................46
1
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................46
2
DEFINING A TOPIC .....................................................................................................46
3
STRUCTURING A TEXT ..............................................................................................48
4.
3.1
Introduction, body and conclusion .........................................................................48
3.2
The first draft .........................................................................................................49
3.3
Proofread the final draft.........................................................................................51
WRITING TEXTS IN A MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT .......................................52
4.1
Instructions ...........................................................................................................52
4.2
Journals ................................................................................................................53
4.3
Notices and circulars .............................................................................................53
4.4
Directions ..............................................................................................................54
4.5
Forms ...................................................................................................................55
4.6
Memoranda (memos) ............................................................................................56
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CHAPTER 1: THE BASIC RULES OF WRITING
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

identify the target audience

determine the purpose of writing

identify different points of view

decide on the form, tone, style and content of the writing task
1
INTRODUCTION
If you are not very good at it, writing can be a drag. It's a skill, however, that you need to
develop in order to be competitive in today's society. Writing is the major means of
communication within any organisation.
Up to 30% of work-time is engaged in written
communication. It is therefore absolutely vital for you to actively develop the skill of writing
and that you learn how to write good presentations, memoranda, reports and letters. Since
so much of the communication between you and more senior management occur in writing, a
good part of your career may depend upon the quality of your writing.
When writing, remember that once something is in written form, it cannot be taken back.
There is less room for errors than when one uses spoken language, but the great advantage
of written work is that you can think about the message you want to convey before writing it
down. You can also check that your language usage, choice of words and style is correct.
Good writing takes effort and requires language expertise. In addition, it takes strict attention
to all the activities involved in reading. These qualities will ensure written communication
that is clear in its contents and its purpose.
In this course we are going to look at the principles of good writing skills to help you become
more professional when writing documents in the workplace.
2
TARGET AUDIENCE
A target audience is the specified audience or group for which a message is designed.
Many communication efforts fail because they target everyone in general or no-one at all.
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The target audience is an important principle used in advertising. It is also important when
designing presentations or writing reports, proposals and letters.
2.1
Targeting your audience
It is necessary to find the right balance when defining your target audience in such a way that
your audience recognises that you are writing or talking specifically to them. This often
requires that you narrow down your target audience.

Decide who your target audience is going to be. Develop a profile of your intended
audience (age, educational level, career or position held, ethnicity, values, interests,

Ask yourself where your target audience is situated.

Before writing, decide what you want to achieve, what your audience wants to
know, or do or how you want them to react to your writing.

What do they think about the issue (topic) that you intend writing about?

Decide how you would like the audience to perceive your product, service or
issue.

How will you keep your audience interested in what you have to say?

How will you convince them to accept your point of view or consider your
suggestions?
2.2
Defining the target audience
You were asked, for example to write a report about an accident in your work environment.
Put yourself in your audience's shoes.
The vocabulary you use, the arguments you
present, and even the organisational structure you give in the piece of writing will all
depend on what you want to say and who you want to say it to.
When defining the target audience, you will ask
yourself:

Who will read my work? (for example,
the management team at the plant
where I am working, my peers, the
board or directors?)

How knowledgeable are the intended
readers? Do I have to explain jargon?
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(concepts used in the workplace only) Are they familiar with the set-up at work?
What do they know about the topic?

Is my work meant for internal purposes only or it is going to be send to other
plants, or to other areas?

What is it that is important to my target audience?

How can I make sure that what I have to say becomes important to them?
Refer to Unit Standards 8962, 8968, 8974 for more information on
targeting the audience
3
PURPOSE OF WRITING
Purpose
separated.
and
audience
cannot
be
If you know why you are
writing, but don't pay detailed attention to
the needs of your audience, you are not
successful in your writing.
If you have
analysed your audience and don't really
know what you are writing to them for, you
are still not succeeding in conveying the
message. Example:
The purpose of a
corporate person writing a memo will differ from one that is written by an employee of a
chemical plant.
3.1
Purpose, goal or aim
Purpose is the reason why you are writing. You may write a grocery list in order to
remember what you need to buy. You may write a report in order to carefully describe an
incident. You may write an argumentative essay in order to persuade someone to change
the safety rules on the site. You may write a letter to a newspaper to express your concern
about the safety of workers in a chemical plant.
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When you communicate with other people, you are usually guided by a purpose, goal, or
aim:

You may want to express your feelings

You may want to explore an idea

You may want to entertain or amuse your listeners or readers

You may wish to inform people or explain an idea

You may wish to argue for or against an idea in order to persuade others to believe
or act in a certain way

You may want to make special kinds of arguments when you are evaluating or
problem solving

You may wish to mediate or negotiate a solution in a tense or difficult situation
Writers often combine purposes in a single piece of writing. Thus, we may, in a business
report, begin by informing readers of the economic facts before we try to persuade them to
take a certain course of action.
3.2
What do you want to accomplish?
Before you write one word, you need to know what you want your writing to accomplish. If
you aren't sure what your purpose in writing is, your writing will not be clear. Ask yourself:

Are you conveying information to the general public?

Are your reporting on a recent project?

Is your writing part of an investigation?

Do you want your readers to do something when they have finished reading?
We often write to convey information to a group of people. Annual reports go to stockholders
the company wants to keep happy; proposals are written to persuade people to buy products
or services; and, user manuals are written to help people operate devices or assemble
pieces of furniture. If the purpose of writing each of these documents is not very clear, the
intended audience may not get the message.
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3.3
Style, form and tone of writing
You focus on your purpose when you determine the:
3.3.1
Style
Style, which (according to Fielding, 1993), may be defined
as “a way of selecting and putting words together for a
range of purposes and a range of audiences. It refers to a
way of writing or speaking.” Style refers to aspects such
as levels of formality, whether it is

personal or impersonal

active or passive

concise or wordy

clear or ambiguous

concrete or abstract
You should use the formal, impersonal style when writing work documents. Use short
sentences and paragraphs and no slang.
Look at the following examples of extracts from memoranda about the same issue. Study
the style and choice of words:
Example 1: Hi there Boss! We dropped in to see you about a safety refresher course. Five
guys in pain now because they chat all the time and don’t know or obey safety rules. Sorry
you were not in! (Watch out! Going out for lunch too often makes your clothes shrink! Just
joking) Cheers!
The intimate style of communication is used. This style is used among people who know
each other very well. In this case it might show lack of respect and it is not suitable for
written communication in a work environment.
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Example 2:
My department feels that we are in need of a refresher course in safety
procedures. We’ve had five accidents last month and called in some experts. They’ve been
analysing what’s been going on. What a shock! People haven’t got a clue and don’t care
about following safety procedures!
This is an example of the use of the casual style. Sentences are short and the writer used
casual vocabulary such as “We’ve”, “They’ve” and “haven’t got a clue.” This style is more
suitable for oral communication.
Example 3: We, in the Bleaching Division, feel that there’s a great need for a refresher
course in safety procedures.
We are convinced of this need now that we have gone though a report from some experts.
They analysed the large number of accidents (five) that occurred last month and came up with
surprising answers.
This extract uses the consultative style which is less formal. It is suitable for memoranda
within a company. It uses the personal pronoun “we”, and simple vocabulary. Note the use
of the expression, “came up with”, which is very casual.
Example 4: It has been noted by the Management of the Bleaching Division that the need for
a refresher course in safety procedures should be regarded as of high priority by our
organisation in the near future. This belief has been strengthened by an in-dept investigation
by experts of the large number of accidents that occur in the plant during the past month.
The document uses the highly formal or frozen style. The impersonal form “it” was used.
Passive forms such as “has been noted” and “should be regarded” were used. Avoid this
style. It is very difficult to read and make sense of.
Example 5: Management of the Bleaching Division has noted the need for a refresher course
in safety procedures. This course should be a high priority.
A team of experts strengthened our belief when they investigated a large number of accidents
that occurred during the past month.
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This extract uses the formal style.
It is written in the active voice and sentences and
paragraphs are short. It is easy to read and understand. This style is suitable for all
work-related documents.
3.3.2
Tone
Tone is important to the success of any piece of writing. Tone can be described as the
writer’s attitude towards the reader and the material that is communicated. Tone is mainly
concerned with the choice of vocabulary. Tone can be described on scales ranging from
friendly to unfriendly; relaxed to stiff and formal to informal.
The tone of a report should be neutral, (not taking a particular point of view) whereas the
tone of a business letter should be friendly or neutral. In general, the tone used in writing
is more formal than in spoken language.
3.3.3
Organisation of your writing
Important facts are stated first, followed by explanations or examples.
3.3.4
Kind of evidence to quote
The sources that form part of your writing need
to be reliable. If you quote incorrect or biased
sources or make unqualified assumptions, you
are jeopardising your own and the company’s
credibility and your superiors will think twice
before
they
ask
you
to
write
important
documents.
3.3.5
Quantity
How much should you write? Decide on which facts to include and illustrate with examples
and which facts to omit to suit the purpose of your writing.
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4
POINT OF VIEW
All writing involves Point of View. This means the writer has chosen,
based on his / her analysis of the reader(s) and writing situation, a
speaker (or voice) for the ideas presented in the letter, memo, or report.
Point of View concerns who is explaining or arguing, and its most
important rule involves consistency.
Once a Point of View is
established, it should be continued throughout the writing.
Compare the following points of view about reporting back
injuries:
Worker: “I always have to answer a hundred questions just to get a pain tablet for my back.”
Supervisor: “You need to report minor incidents that lead to back pain immediately.”
Doctor: “I have treated four people with back injuries in this section last month.”
4.1
First person point of view
First Person refers to the use of “I” in explaining or
arguing in a letter, memo or report. It is usually used
when the writer shares a personal experience, but it
can be the perspective of choice because it creates a
natural style. The first person is used when an
individual’s point of view about an incident or
decision is required.
Example: This decision, I believe, will ensure that our workplace is safe.
4.2
Second person point of view
Second Person refers to the use of “you” in explanations or arguments. Most second
person points of view occur in instructions which are meant to be followed. Once that
decision is made to use the second person, the writer should remain true to it unless (s)he
has a good reason to shift to another point of view.
Example: You will receive the revised Safety Procedures by Monday April 22, 2005. You
will have an opportunity to respond to it in writing before May 15, 2005.
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4.3
Third person point of view
Third Person Point of View is the preferred perspective for most work-related
communication. Third Person does not allow for direct self-expression. An advantage of
using the third person is that it is objective in tone and style. First and Second Person
cannot easily give an objective sound to business communications. They bring subjectivity
and intimacy to tone and style and should only be used in circumstances which require these
characteristics.
Example: Each applicant will do a practical demonstration during his / her final interview.
5
THE CONTENT OF A WRITING TASK
You need to select an effective format (for example letter, report, memorandum) when you
are required to write about an issue.
After determining the purpose, audience, format and style of a writing task, you need to focus
on the message you want to convey.
5.1
Steps to follow when deciding about the content of a
written task

Decide on the main idea of your writing. The term “main idea” refers to the point or
thought being expressed. The main idea is the central thought or message of a
piece of writing.

Decide how you are going to
support your main idea with
examples,
applications
or
supporting detail.

Brainstorm ideas about the
topic.

Do a mind map of the basic
outline of the document.

Every piece of writing consists
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of an introduction, the body of the writing and the conclusion. After you have
gone through the brainstorming and mind mapping stages, decide on a captivating
introduction, the content of your body and effective conclusion.
5.2
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is the name given to the generation of new ideas around a specific area.
When you use this technique, which remove inhibitions, you will be able to think more freely
and move into new areas of thought and you will create numerous new ideas and solutions.

Write down all ideas that come to your mind about a topic, even the wild and
exaggerated ones.

All the ideas are noted down and are not criticised.

Only when the brainstorming session is over and you can think of no more ideas, the
ideas are evaluated.

Decide which ideas are useful and which ideas are not.

Organise useful ideas into a mind map.
5.3
Mind mapping
Organise your ideas into a mind map. In this way you can plan exactly what you are going to
say. You can also decide about the relationship between the different parts of your writing
and you can see and check whether you have covered all aspects of the topic you need to
write about.
For more information on mind maps, see Unit Standards 8963, 13202,
8968
Complete Exercise 1 in your Workbook
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CHAPTER 2: GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY IN
TEXT
By the end of this chapter you will be able to

identify the correct and incorrect use of words and grammar in written text

apply spelling rules

understand the difference between words commonly confused

avoid words and phrases used too frequently

understand how to use a dictionary to check grammar

understand the importance of not using complex and foreign words and avoiding too
much slang
1
INTRODUCTION
Writing is a powerful tool. You need to train yourself in its use to ensure that you are
efficient. Reflect on your use of language before it reflects badly upon you.
Your aim when writing anything should be to write in a clear, complete and concise way. If
your document satisfies these three criteria, then it deserves to be read. In this chapter we
will focus on the use of the correct words and language in text.
2
INCORRECT USE OF WORDS AND LANGUAGE
2.1
Words often confused or used
incorrectly
The following words are often used incorrectly. Study the examples:
Lend / borrow
I will lend my overalls to you. (Lend to)
You may borrow my overalls. (Borrow from)
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Lay / lie
Lay down the rules.
Lay the table please.
I will lie down a little bit because I am tired.
Don’t lie to me!
Speak / talk
You talk too much.
Speak slowly so that I can hear you.
Teach / learn
I will teach you how to use the equipment correctly.
You will learn how to use the equipment correctly.
Effect / Affect
The effect of the explosion was disastrous. (noun)
The explosion will affect productivity in the plant. (verb)
Assure / ensure / insure
I can assure you that we will organise a workshop
on safety procedures.
I want to ensure that I pass my course by working
hard.
You should insure your car in case you have an
accident.
Little / few
There is little sugar left. (Use little for things you
cannot count)
There are a few pieces of equipment in the
toolbox. (Use few for things that you can count)
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Much / many
This is too much work. (Use much for things you cannot count).
We don’t have many days off. (Use many for things you can count).
Exception: I have little (or much) money left.
2.1.1
Words that sound the same (homophones) but are spelled
differently
Lose / loose
Don’t lose your money.
The screws are loose.
-ice / ise
In the words, advice - advise, device-devise, licence - license, practice-practise each follow
the same pattern: the word ending on -ice is a noun, the word ending on -ise is a verb.
Examples:
We need three hours of soccer practice every week.
I practise three hours per week.
He gave me good advice.
I advise you to go to a doctor immediately.
Roles / rolls
The role of the negotiator is very important when a company needs to resolve conflict.
He played two different roles in the drama.
The bread rolls are still fresh.
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2.2
Words and phrases that are used too often
2.2.1
Nice and bad
The words nice and bad are examples of words that are used too frequently.
There are many other substitutes for these words.
Instead of using the word "nice" in the following sentences, try the
following alternatives:
We experienced an enjoyable (pleasant,
lovely) day on the beach.
Dessert was delicious (scrumptious, tasty,
mouth-watering, and luscious).
My wife is a beautiful (pretty, stunning,
gorgeous,
attractive,
good-looking)
woman.
The kind (pleasant, polite, friendly) lady at
the counter helped us quickly.
I had a productive (creative, industrious, enjoyable, fruitful, rewarding) day at work.
Instead of using "bad" in the following sentences, try one of the
following alternatives:
I had a horrible (awful, terrible, unpleasant) day at work today.
She really has a nasty (spiteful, nasty, unpleasant) attitude.
The results were shocking (appalling,, poor, substandard).
The fruit is rotten (decayed, mouldy, rancid).
She
had
an
unhappy
(troubled,
difficult,
distressing,
unpleasant) childhood.
This is really a poor (insufficient, mediocre, insignificant)
report.
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2.2.2
Filler words or phrases
The following words or phrases are often used in speeches or written work and can be
regarded as fillers. They don’t contribute to the message of a text, take up space, distract
the reader and should be avoided:
Read the following ridiculous example of using filler phrases:
At this point in time I have studied the problem at grassroots levels and personally I am not
convinced that we should carry on with the current methods, in fact I believe that we should
leave no stone unturned to solve the problem. In general it boils down to basically starting from
scratch to fix the problem.
The whole paragraph can be rewritten in a clearer and more concise way:
I think we should try another method to fix the problem.
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2.3
The use of pronouns
Pronouns are often used incorrectly.
Study the following examples:
I and me
My
colleagues and I fixed the
problem.
(Not
me
and
my
colleagues…)
You
In informal English the pronoun "you"
is often used to indicate an indefinite person, not necessarily the reader or listener.
Example: When you make a mistake....
It is preferable to use third person in written documents:
When one makes a mistake...
When a worker makes a mistake....
Other synonyms for this usage of you include a person, people, etc.
They / them / their
Help them because they want their work to be done quickly.
We / us / our
We want our work to be done quickly. Are you going to help us?
It / they
There was an incident when one of the machines broke down. It should be investigated
further. (one incident)
There were two incidents when machines broke down. They should be investigated further.
(two incidents).
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2.4
The articles "a" and "an"
Use "a" if the first letter of the following word begins with a consonant when pronounced.
Use "an" if the first letter of the following word begins with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u) when
pronounced.
Examples: A letter, an application. If the word after "a" or "an" is an abbreviation or a
number, then decide whether it begins with a vowel sound when pronounced:
Examples:
a UPS
an 1800 V
When the first letter in a word is silent, considers the second letter in the word following the
article:
Examples:
an honour
an hour
3
APPLYING SPELLING RULES IN WRITING
For some people, spelling is a constant problem. Incorrect spelling distracts the reader and
questions the authority of the author.
3.1
Tips for better spelling
Computer spell-checking programmes provide great assistance, especially when supported
by a good dictionary. Practise your spelling by doing the following:

Make a list of words that you are
constantly misspelling and refer to
this list when you write anything.

If you use a computer, use the
spell checker to make sure that
your
document
contains
no
spelling errors. Remember to use
the
South
African
or
United
Kingdom versions and not the
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United States version of the spell checker.

Consult a dictionary to make sure that words are spelled correctly and used in the right
context.
3.2
Spelling rules
If you know the basic spelling rules you can eliminate most spelling errors:
Spelling rule
Examples
1. i before e, except
believe, relief
after c
receive, ceiling
when the word sounds like ay
neighbour, weigh
Exceptions
either, foreign, height, leisure, protein, weird
and CIEN words like ancient, science
2. Plural nouns
Some plural nouns end in -s,
report-reports, storey-storeys
Others end in -es
bus - buses, fox - foxes, glass - glasses;
hero - heroes
Nouns ending on y are changed into ie in the
plural.
ability - abilities; mystery – mysteries,
story -stories
Some nouns ending on f, get only -s
hoof - hoofs, scarf - scarves
Some nouns ending in - us change to - i in
the plural.
fungus - fungi, stimulus - stimuli
Nouns ending in – um change to –a in the
plural.
memorandum - memoranda; erratum - errata
3. Two vowels
“When two vowels go walking, the first one
does the talking.” When there are two
vowels in a row, the first usually has a long
sound and the second is silent.
team (not taem)
coat (not caot)
people (not poeple)
4. Words with FULL:
The word full has a double l.
full
When the word full is combined with anything
else, the second l is omitted.
plentiful, beautiful, skilful, a handful,
successful.
5. Words with –ABLE
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Spelling rule
Examples
Sometimes the –e is left out when the suffix – repute = reputable, value = valuable
able is used to form an adjective of a noun
Other times the –e is kept
knowledge = knowledgeable
Other words with -able
fashionable, excitable, predictable, available
6. Words ending in -o
potato - potatoes, motto - mottoes but
dynamo - dynamos, photo - photos
7. Double consonants
Many verbs that end with a single consonant
have this letter repeated in the spelling for
other forms of the verb.
drop – dropping - dropped.
8. Days of the week
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,
Friday, Saturday.
9. Put together a list of words that you
find difficult to spell.
Examples of words commonly misspelled:
absence, guarantee, accessible, occurrence,
occasion, official, conscience, campaign,
accommodate, committee, auxiliary,
phenomenon, lightning, rhythm, particular,
maintenance, separate.
4
THE USE OF DICTIONARIES
Dictionaries can be divided into different categories: There are dictionaries that provide
translations from one language into another; some concentrate on a subject field (such as
technical or medical dictionaries) and explain terms in that subject field and others provide
meanings, uses and explanations of words in one language.
Entries in dictionaries are organised strictly alphabetically
with guide words in bold at the top of each page to help a
reader find the correct entry.
A Dictionary (such as the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English) is an invaluable aid to writers
to:

understand the meaning of a word

determine the different contexts in which a word
can be used
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
see example sentences in which the word is used

learn how to use words correctly

see how a word is pronounced

check the form of the verb

see how the parts of speech of the word can be used for

see different prefixes and suffixes to form other words with the same root

find out how the word is used as an adjective or adverb

determine the plural form of the word

see the comparative and superlative forms of an adjective

learn idiomatic expressions in which the word is used
Look at the following extract which illustrates the different uses of dictionaries1:
pa·per (pā'pər)
1. A material made of cellulose pulp, derived mainly from wood, rags, and certain grasses,
processed into flexible sheets or rolls by deposit from an aqueous suspension, and used
chiefly for writing, printing, drawing, wrapping, and covering walls. 2. A single sheet of this
material. 3. One or more sheets of paper bearing writing or printing, especially: a. A formal
written composition intended to be published, presented, or read aloud; a scholarly essay or
treatise. b. A piece of written work for school; a report or theme. c. An official document,
especially one establishing the identity of the bearer. Often used in the plural.
papers A collection of letters, diaries, and other writings, especially by one person: the
Madison papers.
A newspaper. Wallpaper. A wrapper made of paper, often with its contents: a paper of pins.
Slang.: A free pass to a theater. b.The audience admitted with free passes.
tr.v., -pered, -per·ing, -pers.
To cover, wrap, or line with paper.
To cover with wallpaper.
1 (From: The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition)
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1. To supply with paper.
2. Slang. To issue free passes for (a theater, for example).
3. To construct (something) in haste and with little forethought: papered together a new
coalition of political convenience.
Adj.
Made of paper.
Resembling paper, as in thinness or flimsiness.
Of or relating to clerical work: paper duties.
4. Existing only in printed or written form: a. paper profits; a paper corporation. b.Planned but
not realized; theoretical.
Idioms: in paper
With a paperback binding; as a paperback.
on paper, in writing or print.
In theory, as opposed to actual performance or fact: It is a good team on paper, but its members
play poorly together.
[Middle English, from Old French papier, from Latin pap[ymacr]rus, papyrus plant, papyrus
paper, from Greek papūros.]
Pa’per er n
5
COMPLEX AND FOREIGN WORDS
Complex words are long words that are not easy to
understand
Words that contain Latin or Greek
roots, for example, may not be familiar to an
audience.
Simple words help you express your message
clearly. Too many complex words are like hurdles
in a race, barriers to understanding which slows
readers down.
Replacing complex words with
simpler words whenever possible helps your readers concentrate on your ideas and
information.
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Using simple and familiar words wherever possible doesn’t insult your readers’ intelligence
but emphasizes clarity rather than formality. You may need to use a more complex word to
give a more precise meaning. You may also find some words, such as prohibit or require,
are difficult to avoid because of your writing task and subject matter. For example, you may
find it easier to keep to simpler words in a memo or letter than in a report or regulation.
However, use shorter, simpler words as the basis of your writing and save longer or complex
words for when they are essential.
Example:
Complex: We will endeavour to assist you.
Simple: We will try to help you.
Foreign words are words imported from another language or subject fields than the language
or subject field your audience is familiar with. If you use foreign words, such as the name of
a piece of equipment, the term should be explained in the text.
6
JARGON AND SLANG
6.1
Jargon
The term, jargon describes any language that is hard to understand because of the following
reasons:

there are many technical words that the audience cannot understand

long or many unfamiliar words are used

it contains many unnecessary words that could be omitted in the text

it contains long, complicated sentences
When writing for an audience who are laypeople (not familiar with your work environment) be
careful not to use symbols, abbreviations, terms and phrases that they don’t understand. If
you use them, try to explain the symbol or word by using footnotes, a glossary or an
explanatory paragraph.
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Look at the following examples of jargon in an industrial environment:
Symbols:
This sign refers to PPE or Personal Protective Equipment.
Somebody who doesn’t work in an industrial environment would not know this
sign.
Terms: Terms such as chain drive, girth gear and pinion and friction drive are used in a
woodyard and refer to drive systems used to power debarking drums.
Abbreviations and the context of these abbreviations such as the following need to be
explained to a lay audience.
A = Accepts stream
BSG = Basic specific gravity [ ]
F = Feed stream
m = mass [kg]
mi = mass flow rate [kg/s]
R = Reject stream
RRm = removal efficiency / reject rate [%]
Sentences such as the following should be explained to a lay audience: “The major impetus
for the development of ozone bleaching has been the elimination or reduction of chlorinecontaining chemicals.”
6.2
Slang
The term Slang refers to words that are used in common talk among friends and colleagues
but not suitable for writing and formal occasions. Sometimes slang words are degrading or
discriminatory as they categorise people according to stereotypical characteristics according
to race, gender or job title.
Look at the following example of slang in a note from an employee to his supervisor:
“Hi there Boss!
I’ll be late today, have to fix my car. I asked John, the new ouk (the
whitie with the attitude) to cover for me at the meeting. See ya!” Peter
This type of language is not suitable for writing, especially not when you are writing workrelated documents.
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Avoid expressions, such as the following:
Instead of write up, used as a noun, rather write: report, essay, document.
Instead of hook up use connect.
Instead of set up, used as a noun, use: apparatus, system, circuit.
Instead of burn out, write: damage, destroy.
For more information on jargon, slang, etc. read Unit Standard 8962
Complete Exercise 2 in your Workbook
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CHAPTER 3: WRITING GOOD SENTENCES
AND PARAGRAPHS
By the end of this chapter you will be able to

understand the basic rules for sentence structure

understand the agreement between the subject and verb in sentences

use punctuation conventions appropriately

use linking devices (such as pronouns and conjunctions) to combine sentences

use the active and passive voice to express information in a variety of ways

understand the concept and benefits of short sentences

identify and formulate a topic sentence in a paragraph

understand the need to structure sentences in such a way that the readers do not
lose interest (variety of sentence lengths and types)
1
BASIC RULES FOR SENTENCES STRUCTURE
1.1
Sentence structure
If you want to be an effective writer, you need to know the rules or principles of standard
written English, the kind of English used in written communication and that often differs from
spoken language.
Standard written English requires that you adhere to correct sentence structure and
punctuation. To understand sentence structure and improve your writing, you need to know
the definitions of a verb (predicate), subject, phrase, an independent clause, a dependent
clause, and a sentence.
Predicate: The action words or verbs in a sentence: Go, play, is eating, were written, work,
be has done, is, was, have, etc.
Subject: The subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun. Thabile / she, desk / it.
e.g. Thabile is a noun. She is a pronoun.
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Object: Some sentences contain an object. You can determine the object in a sentence by
asking the question, WHAT? Example: He writes a memorandum. He is the subject, writes
the predicate and a memorandum is the object (answer to question, WHAT?)
A phrase is a group of words that does not have a subject or a verb, or both. It does not
make sense by itself.
Example: “…good screening and dewatering…”
An independent clause has a subject and a predicate, and can stand alone as a complete
sentence.
Example: “It rains.”
A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but depends on an independent clause
to be complete. Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions (after,
although, because, before, if, though, unless, until, when, where, who, which, that).
Example: “…who was appointed as the manager recently.” (The name of the person needs
to be included as well as a phrase or clause to complete the sentence.)
A sentence is a group of words containing at least one independent clause and expressing a
complete idea. It has a subject and a verb (predicate) and can stand alone.
Example of a basic sentence:
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Some sentences contain an object. Look at the following example:
A sentence can be expanded by adding

descriptive words such as adjectives and adverbs (words that describe nouns and
verbs).

adjectival phrases or clauses describe the noun or subject in a sentence.

adverbial clauses or phrases describe the predicate in a sentence.
Study the following example where a basic sentence was expanded:
1.2
Sentence Fragments
Sometimes we use sentence fragments in informal conversations. A sentence fragment
looks like a sentence, but it lacks a verb or a subject.
Examples: The fax machine with redial capacity. Structuring the text of a report.
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Fragments should be avoided in written work because they distract and confuse readers. In
written work, fragments like the previous examples should be rephrased:
Examples: The fax machine has a redial capacity. I am structuring the text of a report.
1.3
Rules of number (concord)
A verb must agree with its subject in number and in person. A pronoun must agree in
number, person and gender with the noun to which it refers.
Rules of agreement of subject and verb
Rule
Examples
1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be
singular.
Our manager (or he) is fair.
If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural
The workers (they) are tired.
2. Two singular nouns joined by AND will take
the plural noun if a single idea is NOT
expressed.
The conveyor belt and the loading plate are
broken.
3. If a single idea is expressed, the verb must
be singular.
The blue and red overall is the accepted
apparel at our workplace. (one overall)
The blue overall and the red overall are
worn by workers. (two overalls)
Bacon and eggs is my favourite dish. (one
dish)
Our friend and colleague, Mr Cele is here
(the same person).
4. In sentences that contain
Either …or
Neither the workers nor the supervisor is
here today.
Neither …nor
Neither the supervisor nor the workers are
here today.
Not only … but also
The verb agrees with the subject closest to the
verb.
5. When sentences are joined together by
words such as with, together, like, including,
as well as, the verb agrees with the subject
further away. This is because these words
indicate that a phrase which contains extra
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Our manager as well as the managers from
other sections is present.
The workers together with their supervisor
are present.
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Rules of agreement of subject and verb
Rule
Examples
information, which is not part of the main idea,
will follow.
Johannes, like all the members of his team,
is very loyal and sincere.
6. Certain words like the following are always
followed by a singular verb:
Nothing is impossible.
Each of you, everyone, nobody, anyone,
everything, someone, somebody, something,
nothing, one.
Everybody knows how to do it.
Each of you is responsible.
Nobody works overtime.
7. Certain nouns which appear to be plural
take a singular verb: Athletics, billiards, darts,
fruit, game, measles, mumps, physics, series,
tidings, whereabouts, news.
Athletics is my favourite sport.
8. Some nouns always take a plural verb:
The pliers are on the table
Cattle, people, majority, poultry, goods, pants,
scissors, pyjamas, sports, glasses, thanks,
trousers, pliers, shots.
but: A pair of pliers is on the table.
9. Collective nouns: Singular if the members
act as a whole but plural if there is
disagreement or if they do not act as a whole
(are divided).
Mamelodi Sundowns is a great team.
10. A fraction (or part) of one thing IS
Only two-thirds of the paper plant is
operational.
A fraction (or part) of many things ARE
The news about his condition is not good.
Physics is my son’s favourite subject.
The majority of workers are in favour of
developing new skills.
Mamelodi Sundows are scattered all over
the field.
Only two-thirds of the paper plants are
operational.
11. Much and little always singular;
Much has been said about horseplay.
Many and few always plural.
Little sugar is added.
Few people are willing to cooperate.
12. The Pronoun must agree with the noun.
The work has to be done. Do it. Work = it.
These are my pens. You may borrow them.
Pens = them.
One must do one’s work and not complain.
13. The word data is plural
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1.4
Punctuation
Punctuation is a matter of logic and common sense and should be used to
make sense out of a sentence and to indicate stress, intonation and
emotive language. Without capital letters, full stops, commas, hyphens and
inverted commas one would not be able to make sense out of written work.
1.4.1

Capital letters
The capital letter is used when you start a sentence: Make sure that you protect
yourself against possible hazards.

The capital letter is used for proper names: Johnson, John, Tracy.

Countries, languages: He comes from Zimbabwe. He is a Zimbabwean mine
worker.

Names of book, films, magazines, titles of poems:
The Great Gatsby,
Terminator.

1.4.2
Titles: King Goodwill Swelitini, Pope John Paul.
The full stop (.)
Full stops are used:

At the end of a sentence: I am going to leave early today.

After abbreviations: Prof. etc. A.A.

There is a tendency to spell some abbreviations (also known as Acronyms) without
full stops: SABC, SAPPI, MONDI

Where an abbreviation ends with the same letter as the word for which it stands, no
full stop is used: Mr (Mister), Mrs (Mistress), Std (Standard), Rd (Road).
1.4.3
The comma (,)
The comma has many used. It is used to indicate shorter stops than full stops. Look at the
following examples where commas are frequently used:

If used correctly, it makes reading easier.
Note the difference between the
following two sentences: Mary Anne and Cathy are sisters. Mary, Anne and Cathy
are sisters.
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
Before and after additional information: Peter, my friend and colleague, was
injured yesterday.
Arthur, the manager of the Cape Town branch, will be here
tomorrow.

At the beginning of a sentence to avoid confusion: With the fire spreading
rapidly, the workers shouted loudly and started running towards the exits. Finally,
the fire brigade managed to extinguish the fire.

In direct speech: Mary said, “My job is my first priority.”

Use the comma after “yes” and “no”, with “please”
and when you address someone directly: Yes, I think
so. No, I don’t think so. Pass me the pliers, please.

When you mention a list of items: Please write down directions, contact numbers,
responsibilities and names of people involved.
1.4.4
The colon (:)
The colon is used to:

Introduce a list. Make sure that you wear a helmet, protective gloves, overalls and
boots when you work in this section.

Separate contrasting sentences:
To make mistakes is human, to admit your
mistakes is divine.

To introduce an additional remark for the sake of explanation: You may not
enter without an appointment: The manager won’t allow it.
1.4.5
The semi-colon (;)
The semi-colon is used to:

Separate co-ordinate clauses that are not joined by conjunctions (such as but and
because): Peter will leave on Monday; Henry on Friday.

1.4.6
To indicate a contrast. Some were good; some were bad.
The hyphen (-)
Do not use a space before or after a hyphen. Well-liked.
The hyphen is used to:

Form compound words: good-looking, arm-length. Compound words containing
numbers or half- are hyphenated: half-life, half-width, half-baked, one-half. Words
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formed with -free are hyphenated: divergence-free. Words formed by two words with
equal functions, so that the compound is a single word with a different meaning:
analog-to-digital conversion, one-to-one correspondence.

Connect numbers: thirty-six, two hundred and twenty-two.

Express direction: south-east.

Avoid confusion: wellliked should be well-liked.
1.4.7
The dash ( - )
Leave a space before and after a dash. And then – suddenly – the machine erupted in
flames. The dash is used to:

Show that a word is unfinished or left out: Mr M – report the crime.

Show hesitation: “I was –um – um – at home, Sir.”

Mark off groups of words added in explanation: I feel sure – and I have said so
before – that he is capable of working in this section.
1.4.8
Parenthesis (or brackets)
Brackets ( ) are used to add a definition or an explanation to a previous word: These men
(engineers and technicians) are well-qualified.
1.4.9
The exclamation (!) and question mark (?)
Question marks are used at the end of direct questions: “Who is the new operator?”
Exclamation marks are to be used sparingly. They are used to express:

Emotions such as anger, pity, surprise, fear: “How dreadful!” “Ouch!”

Strong commands: Stop! You can’t go in there.
1.4.10
Inverted commas (" ")
Inverted commas are used:

At the beginning and end of quotations:
“People only see what they are
prepared to see.” Ralph Waldo Emerson said.

For direct speech: John asked, “Where would you like to start?”

To enclose titles of books, poems, newspapers, etc.
“The Star”, “Organic
Chemistry”.
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
Single inverted commas are used inside inverted commas: “Have you read
‘Principle-centred Leadership’ by Stephen Covey?”
1.4.11
The apostrophe (‘)
The apostrophe is used:

To form the genitive (possessive case):
The operator’s helmet protected him
during the explosion. James’s helmet protected him. The boy’s toys were scattered
on the floor. (one boy). The boys’ toys were scattered on the floor (more than one
boy).

It is never used in plurals: CVs, radios, CDs, etc.
1.5
Combining sentences
1.5.1
Run-on sentences and comma splices
A run-on sentence is formed when two independent clauses are joined without a
conjunction or without punctuation.
A comma splice is formed when two independent
clauses are incorrectly connected with a comma instead of being separated into two
sentences or joined with a conjunction or a semicolon.
Run-on sentences and comma
splices should be avoided because of the following reasons: They …

are hard to read

confuse the reader

suggest that you are careless, and

indicate that you do not know what a sentence is
1.5.2
Revising run-on sentences and comma splices
There are several ways to revise run-on sentences and comma splices:

Use a full stop between the independent clauses

Insert a semicolon between the independent clauses, by placing a comma and a
coordinating conjunction between the independent clauses, or

Use a subordinating word to make an independent clause a dependent clause.
Example: Moses Molefe, who is our supervisor, is a man of his word.
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
Use a comma and a conjunction (and, but, yet, nor, for, or, so) between
independent clauses. Example: The operator reported a leak, but he couldn’t avoid
an accident.

Use a full stop or a semicolon between the independent clauses. Example: The
operator reported a leak; he avoided an accident.

Use a semicolon plus an adverb (also, furthermore, however, nevertheless,
similarly, therefore, next, finally, indeed, certainly) or a transitional expression (as
a result, in fact, at the same time, in conclusion) between the independent clauses.
Example: Peter and his supervisor, Mr Skosana, discovered the leak; however, it
was too late to save the machine.

Revise one independent clause into a dependent clause. Example: Radium,
which can cause cancer, is also used to cure cancer.
1.5.3
Transition words and phrases
Transition words and phrases help
establish clear connections among
ideas and ensure that sentences
and
paragraphs
flow
together
smoothly, making them easier to
read. Use the following words and
phrases to indicate

that
more
will
follow:
information
Besides,
furthermore, in addition,
moreover

an example: for example, for instance, in particular, particularly, specifically, to
demonstrate, to illustrate

a purpose or reason: for fear that, in order to, so that, with this in mind

contrast or comparison:
although, however, in comparison, nevertheless,
whereas, yet, on the other hand

a time shift or a particular time frame: after, before, currently, finally, eventually,
during, simultaneously, soon

a summary: briefly, overall, to summarise
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
a conclusion: in conclusion, therefore, so, given these facts
1.6
Active and passive voice
English use two voices: Active and passive. The following examples show the difference:
Active: The operator wears protective
glasses.
Passive: Protective glasses are worn
by the operator.
It is better to use the active voice and
writers and speakers should use it when
possible.
The passive voice makes
writing less direct.
The passive voice is acceptable when

a report has to be written impersonally. An impersonal style and the passive
voice often go together, as in the following
sentence: It was recorded by Mr Bengu that the
containers in Zone A are leaking. The ideal style for
a report, however, is an impersonal, active style.
Example: Mr Bengu and Ms Thompson examined
the containers in Zone A. and found that they were
leaking.

a writer wishes to emphasise a key point, such as
in: The regulations have been broken once again.
This sentence emphasises the regulations.

When you wish to remain neutral in a potentially
difficult situation: The form was returned unsigned.
2
CONSTRUCTING PARAGRAPHS
2.1
Characteristics of a good paragraph
A paragraph can be defined as two or more sentences that are grouped together and
which contains only one main idea. A paragraph contains one topic sentence and more
sentences that elaborate the main idea.
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Every paragraph in a document should justify itself; it should serve a purpose. A paragraph
should convey a single idea. There should be a statement of that key idea followed by
some of the following:

development of the idea

an explanation or analogy

an illustration

support with evidence

contextual links to reinforce the
structure.
Coherence
in
paragraphs
is
extremely
important. The subject matter should be arranged in a logical manner. One way in which we
can achieve coherence is by linking sentences correctly with words such as otherwise, on
the contrary, instead, however, although, etc. Another way is to arrange the sentences
logically so that unity is achieved.
Example: What is Kraft paper?2
In 1883, a German inventor named Carl Dahl discovered that adding sodium sulphate to the
soda process produced a very strong pulp. The discovery produced the Kraft process. Kraft
means strength in German. During the early 1900s, the Kraft process became the most
important pulping process.
2.2
The benefits of writing short sentences
Avoid long sentences. A sentence is a unit of information. When we read, we process
the information when we reach the full stop.
If the sentence is too long, we lose the
information either because of our limited attention span or because the information was
poorly set out. Information needs to be broken up into smaller sentences which would better
have kept the attention of the reader. Shorter sentences reinforce the original message with
greater clarity and simplicity.
2 From www.ToiletPaperWorld.com
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Compare the following examples3. Paragraph 2 is easier to read and understand because
the sentences are shorter and the punctuation more effective.
Paragraph 1: The whiteness of pulp is measured by its ability to reflect monochromatic light
in comparison to a known standard, usually magnesium oxide; which is measured by the Zeiss
Elrepho brightness meter which provides a diffuse light source. Fully bleached sulphite pulps
can test as high as 94, and unbleached kraft pulps as low as 15 Elrepho units.
Paragraph 2: The whiteness of pulp is measured by its ability to reflect monochromatic light
in comparison to a known standard (usually magnesium oxide). The Zeiss Elrepho brightness
meter provides a diffuse light source. Fully bleached sulphite pulps can test as high as 94 and
unbleached kraft pulps as low as 15 Elrepho units.
2.3
Sentence beginnings and clause structure options
A writer has many options when structuring sentences. The meaning of a sentence can be
changed by changing the beginning. Study the following sentences:
Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper.
Although toilet paper was first used in China, Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of
toilet paper.
After it had been founded in 1879, Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet
paper.
When Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper, nobody could imagine
that it would become such a great consumer product.
Before Scott Paper Company marketed the first rolls of toilet paper, people had to use other
methods for personal hygiene.
Use a variety of beginnings when constructing a paragraph. Make sure that you describe
something adequately by adding descriptive words.
3 Adapted from SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper. Pulpmaking N4 Book 2
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Read the following paragraph in which the writer started all sentences in the same way.
Employees don’t use the fax machine properly. The fax machine was serviced last week. The
fax machine broke. The fax machine had to be repaired. We had to rely more on e-mail. We
bought a new fax machine. The new fax machine can also send and receive e-mail.
Consider the same paragraph that was rewritten. Descriptive words were added and the
style and length of sentences were varied:
Despite the fact that it was serviced last week, the fax machine broke unexpectedly. We had
to rely more on e-mail but soon realised that we needed a new machine. After considering all
the options we bought a new one. The new machine also has e-mail options.
2.4
Writing the topic sentence
The topic sentence expresses the main idea in the author’s words. Any person can come
up with the main idea for a passage, but only the author of the passage can create the topic
sentence. The topic sentence is usually the first or second sentence of a paragraph.
Example:
You need to write a memorandum about a year-end function that you are
organising. The main idea is to inform everybody about the function.
Topic sentence: Our annual year-end function will take place on Friday 5 November at
19h00.
You will then support this topic sentence by elaborating further and discuss the venue,
appropriate dress code, and details of the evening.
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Supporting sentences
2.5
Variety in sentences
In any written document sentences should be varied. This means that all the sentences in a
paragraph cannot be the same length. Shorter sentences should be alternated with longer
ones to keep the reader interested in what you have to say. Don’t start all sentences in the
same way.
Example: A MAGICAL ARABIAN NIGHT
Our year-end function will take place on Friday 5 November at 19h00. Let us celebrate the
year in style! As an ABC Industries employee, you are invited to join in an evening of vibrant
music, dance and magic. Enjoy the fascinating rhythm and exotic tastes of Arabia. Feast on
Arabian cuisine and dance your heart out. Belly dancers will lead the way! You will receive
one free ticket but a cover charge of R100, for your partner or spouse, will be expected.
RSVP before 23 October. Don’t miss out! Be there!
Complete Exercise 3 in your Workbook
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ASSESSMENT: PARAGRAPH
Criteria
Content (4x2) (8)
Message and point of view
supported by relevant
examples or arguments.
Language usage (4x2) (8)
Correct punctuation.
Sufficient vocabulary
Sentence structures
grammatically correct
Correct spelling.
Sentences of varied length
are used.
Form (4)
The paragraph contains one
main idea, one topic
sentence with supporting
sentences.
Level 4
Excellently achieved
4 marks
Level 3
Achieved
3 marks
Level 2
Nearly achieved
2 marks
Interesting, imaginative and
original
Content meets basic
requirements.
Content lacking in some
areas – more detail is
needed.
Content not sufficient for
task, requirements were not
met.
Wide range of vocabulary
used, only one or two minor
language errors
Vocabulary sufficient for task,
a few minor language errors.
Limited vocabulary, a number
of language errors
Very limited vocabulary,
major language errors.
Paragraph meets all the
requirements.
One minor lapse
A few errors
Paragraph meets none of the
requirements.
Total:
Level 1
Not achieved yet
1 mark
/ 20
Comments: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Assessed by:
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CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE AND EDIT TEXTS
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

decide how to define a topic

structure texts in such a way that they have a clearly defined beginning, middle and
end

understand the importance of writing “free “ first drafts and then editing your writing

write introductions and endings

write a first draft

proofread and edit your own writing

write a final draft

create written texts in a manufacturing environment: Instructions; journaling;
directions, forms, memoranda
1
INTRODUCTION
You may be afraid of writing and procrastinate until the night before that report or assignment
is due. When you procrastinate, you put a lot of stress on yourself, you get so tired and feel
so pressurised that you do a sloppy job. You forget to proofread, or get so tired that you
cannot see difficult ideas, faulty reasoning and missing commas.
When your work is
criticised or you get an unsatisfactory mark, you vow that you will never again put things off
until the last minute. How can you get into the habit of delivering good written tasks? The
most difficult part of any assignment is to get started! In this chapter we are going to discuss
the methodology of putting together a good piece of writing.
2
DEFINING A TOPIC
The first step in writing any document is to define the topic. You need to know exactly what
you are going to write about before you start.
Defining your topic is an extensive process in which you think about the topic, determine the
purpose of your writing, the objectives you want to achieve, different points of view to be
considered and questions you need to answer
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When you define your topic, consider some of these questions:

What is the subject that
information is needed for?

From what point of view will
the subject be approached?

What is relevant to the
subject and what is not?

What
is
central
to
the
subject?

What
do
the
readers
already know about the topic?

What do the readers need to know?

Is general, technical or scientific information needed?

What terms or concepts need to be explained?

For what purpose is the information needed?

How much information is needed?

What connections do you need to make?
When you have carefully considered the different sides of your subject, write down a
statement or question that summarises the main idea of the document, for example,
your manager asked you to write a report about one of the machines which had become nonoperational during your shift last night. You may formulate a statement like the following:
Breakdown of the XYZ machine in Section 2 on 23 March or you may prefer to formulate a
question: Why did the XYZ machine in Section 2 break on 23 March? This statement or
question is the focal point of your writing.
You need to do a study of relevant
documents or literature (such as shift
reports, the machine’s manual, previous
breakdowns, service record, books on the
topic, the Internet etc.) and conduct
interviews
with
co-workers
to
gain
information for your report.
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Make notes about your research and organise your notes into categories. Take a note
pad and jot down ideas.
Keep a journal that you can draw upon for that interesting
perspective toward the topic. One very effective method for thoroughly analysing the topic
and writing down your ideas for later use is creating a concept map (mind map). With a
concept map you can visually express the concepts and ideas and their relations to each
other. Use a thesaurus to make sure that you use technical terms correctly.
3
STRUCTURING A TEXT
3.1
Introduction, body and conclusion
A writing piece (like an essay, report, letter or article) consists of an introduction, a body
and a conclusion. When planning any piece of writing you need to determine how it is
going to start and end and what the main content (body) is going to be.
The introduction is the first paragraph of the
paper. It often begins with a general statement
about the topic and ends with a more specific
statement of the main idea of your paper. The
purpose of the introduction is to

let the reader know what the topic is

inform the reader about your point of
view

arouse the reader's curiosity so that he or she will want to read about your topic
A lot of people get stuck on the introduction. If you are one of them, try to jump to the first
paragraph and go on from there. You can go back later and write the introduction. Similarly,
you can skip any of the paragraphs while writing the first draft. If you get stuck, move on and
then go back to work on it in the second draft / editing stage.
The body of the paper follows the introduction. It consists of a number of paragraphs in
which you develop your ideas in detail. Limit each paragraph to one main idea. Prove your
points by using specific examples, arguments and quotations. Use transition words to
ensure a smooth flow of ideas from paragraph to paragraph. Make sure that you

understand the topic

researched the topic thoroughly

exhausted the topic within the terms of reference you were given
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
emphasised certain factors and aspects

interpreted data

compared facts, points of view, etc.

evaluated different points of view

arrived at your own independent conclusions

presented the points in your argument in a logical, reasoned flow

summarised, reached a logical conclusion and were able to make recommendations
The conclusion is the last paragraph of the paper. Its purpose is to summarise your main
points, leaving out specific examples or to restate the main idea of the paper. The reader
must know your purpose in writing this paper. Ask yourself what you have accomplished,
such as providing a broader context for the topic, propose a course of action, offer a new
perspective on the topic, or end with an interesting twist.
Did you leave your reader with
something to ponder about?
3.2
The first draft
Once you have done your research and
planned your outline, the best way to
think about your piece of writing is to
write it.
Seeing your thoughts written
down allows you to regard them
critically and objectively, and putting
one sentence down will inspire another
one.
Have your notes, your plan, and any
other resource materials you need in front of you. If you have done your planning and
preparation on a computer, it is best to print out those materials so that you can see them
while you are working.
After you have prepared your ideas and written a plan / outline, you are ready to start
writing your first draft. Now that you are ready, sit down and try to write the draft in one go.
Start writing the rough draft at least a week before the writing task is due. In this way, you
leave yourself plenty of time to make the necessary changes or improve on your original
work. If you can let yourself get into the flow of writing, your words will come more easily and
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you are more likely to find connections between the ideas. Allow yourself to explore the
ideas as you go.
A mistake we often make is thinking that once we have written a draft, the task is done. The
first draft is only a part of the whole writing process that leads to a finished,
presentable, and hopefully excellent piece of writing. The idea of the first draft is to get
the ideas out, to flesh out your answer, and to give you some content to shape and change
into a finished product. You may need to write a number of drafts in order to get to that final
product. Or, possibly, if you have really thought through your ideas and planned well, you
may only need to write one draft that you then edit. It depends on what happens in the first
draft - and it is best not to expect too much or too little from it.
The main idea of writing a first draft is to write the document as a flowing whole and to
really let the ideas and words splash out onto the paper. At this stage of writing, DO
NOT spend time fixing anything.
DO NOT change anything.
DO NOT even consider
bothering about your spelling or grammar. You will fix and change (edit) in the next stage.
3.2.1
Revising, editing and rewriting the first draft
The writing process can be summarised as follows:
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Write in your own words. It is important that your document does not consist of chunks
lifted from various sources, clumsily linked together.
Keep your reader in mind. Ask yourself, "Could someone else understand what I am
saying?"
Read through your first draft and edit your work.

Check the spelling and language structures.

Reread sentences. Do you need to reformulate some of the sentences so that the
message is clearer and more concise?

Read the whole document – are the arguments logical?
Pay particular attention to layout and numbering.

Number your pages as well as the various chapters, sections and sub-sections of
your essay.

The easiest way to number is as follows: Use the decimal system when numbering
different sections. It is considered good practice to number only up to the third level,
e.g. 1.1.3. Thereafter it is better to use (a), (b) etc., or just to use bullets. Long
number hierarchies become difficult to read.

Read your paper out loud. This sometimes makes it easier to identify writing that is
awkward or unclear.

Have somebody else read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's
unclear or confusing.
It is often very difficult to be objective about your own
writing. Be sure to acknowledge all help you received and make sure there is no
conflict of interest if you work with someone else.

Rewrite your first draft after you have corrected all the mistakes.
3.3 Proofread the final draft
The final touches create the final impression. Remember the following:

Type your document in double or one-and-a-half line spacing.

Pages should be numbered.

Use a dictionary or the spell check facility on the word processing software;

Use headings and sub-headings;
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
Make sure that headings are the same style throughout the whole document and
that they are correctly numbered;

Look for careless errors such as incorrect punctuation, subject-verb agreement and
capitalisation.

Limit your use of passive voice sentences.

Make sure that the final draft is neat and that it looks professional.
4.
WRITING TEXTS IN A MANUFACTURING
ENVIRONMENT
4.1
Instructions
Instructions contain a step-by-step explanation of a process. Instructions are written in a
formal style. Verbs in the imperative mood (command style) should be used. Instructions
usually start with the words open, assemble, test, store, install, etc.
Instructions:

help people to do things on their own with guidelines

ensure that all staff know what to do in specific circumstances

ensure that all staff do the same jobs in the same way

have set procedures to follow

promote safety

help people to get the best use of products
Instructions should tell people:

what to do or what not to do

how to do something

where to do something

how much has to be done

what is dangerous about what they are doing
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Example4: Fabric cleaning steps
1. Drape a piece of soft wet felt on the fabric and, with the fabric on the crawl, spray the
cleaning solution onto the felt for even distribution across the machine width.
2. Manufacture a tray which fits under a fabric return roll and apply the solution as the fabric
passes over the roll surface. The tank or tray should be continually topped up.
3. With a re-circulatory system, chemicals are sprayed onto the fabric and the excess is
collected and re-circulated.
4.2
Journals
Journalling is a form of reflection that is often used for study
purposes.
Journal entries can spark discussions and reveal
gaps in learners' understanding of the material. Journal entries
involve short summaries or analyses of texts, or are a testing
ground for ideas for student papers and reports.
Journalling in the work environment provides a day-to-day
account of the progress of work, notes important events that
happen or gives information about how machines operate or
notes about the behaviour of an individual.
4.3
Notices and circulars
Notices and circulars are written for a general audience. A notice on a board should be
designed to attract the attention of all who pass it because they are competing with many
other notices for the attention of people who pass by. Notices should contain a heading
which tells the reader what it is about, an introduction and the main message written in point
form.
4 Adapted from SAPPI N4 Papermaking: Machine clothing, Doctors, Showers & Roll Crowning. Book 7/7
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Example:
PROCEDURE IN CASE OF ON-THE-JOB INJURIES
All Staff
THIS NOTICE TELLS YOU

WHAT TO DO IF A SOMEONE IS INJURED

WHERE TO GO IF AN INJURED PERSON NEED HELP
What do you do when a worker is injured?

The worker should stop working immediately.

Inform the supervisor.

Take him/ her to the medical room.

If the worker cannot be moved, ask him/ her to lie down and call the sister on duty.
Her number is 4589.

Administer First Aid if case of excessive bleeding, heart failure. There is a First Aid
Kit in every area.
Where do you go?
The medical room is on the 2nd floor of Block B.
Do not move a worker with serious injuries.
Enquiries: J. Mahlangu (Tel 5490)
4.4
Directions
You may be required to write the directions from one specific
spot on a map to a certain place, or to work out a route.
Remember to …

be
brief,
explicit,
logical,
business-like
and
informative

write clearly and do not use emotive language

give landmarks. Start with a known landmark, such
as a school, well-known shop, the reception area of
your company, etc.;
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
use the simplest route and mention street names

include maps and a telephone number and name of a person that could be called for
more information
Refer to Unit Standard 8963 for more information on instructions, notices, circulars and
directions
4.5
Forms
You are often required to complete forms
such as tax returns, schedules, shift
reports, requisition forms, job applications
and
application
for
accounts,
club
memberships and service records.

Make sure that you know what
information you need to fill in.

Complete all the parts of forms
that you are required to do.

Use legible, clear style and complete in black ink because sometimes forms need to
be copied.

Use short sentences.

Print, or if you are typing the form, always use a standard font such as Times New
Roman or Arial, and never set the size less than eleven points.

Be sure to write in clear, proper sentences.

Use the third person point of view. You may use the first person when you submit
"supporting statements" such as “I have found that…” These are only submitted
when the employer requests your personal opinion or results of an investigation.

If a question doesn’t apply to you, write N/A or Not Applicable in the space provided.

Proofread the information after finishing to ensure that you have filled in all the
details.

Attach documents (such as a CV, copy of ID, schedules, etc.) requested in the form.
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4.6
Memoranda (memos)
Memoranda are messages written inside organisations. They are used to:

communicate the same information to a group of people who have to attend a
meeting

inform people about company policies

summarise points made in a conversation or meeting

confirm decisions or agreements

keep people informed about events in the company

make sure staff members are informed about an issue
A memorandum has a fixed format. Look at the following example:
SAPPI PAPER5
Memorandum
To
All supervisors
Date: 23 April 2005
From: J. Cele, Training Manager
SUBJECT: MANUAL HANDLING
Back injuries account for the highest number of employee injuries annually.
Please ensure that
* employees are taught correct techniques. They should be aware that any back pain should be
reported immediately.
* large loads, or high volume manual lifting per shift should be avoided.
* load size and shape should be assessed and the method determined to handle it appropriately – i.e.
by hand or mechanically.
* lifting and twisting must be avoided. Lift, move feet, face drop area and lower.
* objects required to be lifted repetitively should be located in the reach area between shoulder and
knee height.
5
Information taken from SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper Loss Control N6 Book 3/3
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* appropriate PPE (e.g. gloves, hard hats) should be provided.
* pushing and pulling loads can also place excessive strain on the back, and correct techniques and
equipment should be used, after training has been given.
* drop and pick-up areas should be designed to accommodate unrestricted work flow without
excessive handling.
J. Cele
Complete Exercise 4 in your Workbook
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ASSESSMENT: INSTRUCTIONS
Criteria
Level 4
Excellently achieved
4 marks
Form and style: (4)
Professional tone and
style.
Written in imperative
(command) style
Action verbs are used.
Correct language usage.
Content: (4)
Contains a heading;
Logical presentation of
steps;
Steps are complete;
Written in point form;
Main points are numbered;
Good research work.
Level 3
Achieved
3 marks
Level 2
Nearly achieved
2 marks
Level 1
Not yet achieved
0-1 mark
All criteria in the category
were covered.
Almost all criteria in the
category were covered.
About half of the criteria in
the category were covered.
None or almost no
criteria in the category
were covered.
Facts were brilliantly
presented, content
exceeded the basic
requirements.
Complete and detailed.
Basic requirements were
met.
A few of the criteria were
covered, but details are
incomplete.
None or almost no
criteria in the category
were covered.
Incomplete/ content.
Total:
/8
Comments: ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Assessed by:
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3
Write directions for someone of how to get to your section of the plant.
Your
starting point will be one of the gates at the entrance. Remember to include the
directions and assessment rubric in your portfolio of evidence. Include words like
turn, continue, right, left, east, west, south, north, etc.
Mention landmarks like
names of buildings.
Ask one of your colleagues to assess your work according to the following grid:
DIRECTIONS
 OR X
Were the following included?
Names of areas, buildings, streets?
Landmarks?
Verbs like turn…, continue…, stay…, walk/ drive…?
Directions such as north, east, west, south, north-west, south-east, etc.?
Starting and ending points?
TOTAL: 10
Score
2 marks:
Achieved
1 mark:
Partially achieved
0 marks:
Not yet achieved.
Learner’s own answer.
4. Write a memorandum entitled, Unsafe practices, which has to be distributed to all
employees in your section. Use the active voice to write the memorandum and include it to
your portfolio of evidence. Ask one of your colleagues to assess your work according to the
following rubric:
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ASSESSMENT: MEMORANDUM
Criteria
Form and style: (4)
Mentions the names of the
receiver and sender and date;
Signature of sender included;
Professional tone/ style;
Content: (4x2) (8)
Contains a heading;
Logical flow of arguments;
One central idea;
Good research work;
Written in point form.
Language usage: (4) Correct use
of language structures,
punctuation, adequate
vocabulary;
Level 4
Excellently achieved
4 marks
Level 3
Achieved
3 marks
Level 2
Nearly achieved
2 marks
Level 1
Not yet achieved
0-1 mark
All criteria in the category were
covered.
Almost all criteria in the
category were covered.
About half of the criteria in
the category were
covered.
None or almost no criteria
in the category were
covered.
Facts were brilliantly presented,
content exceeded the basic
requirements.
Complete and detailed.
Basic requirements were
met.
A few of the criteria were
covered, but details are
incomplete.
None or almost no criteria
in the category were
covered. Incomplete/
content.
Comprehensive vocabulary,
excellent use of language
structures.
Good command of language
structures and vocabulary, a
few minor errors.
Many language errors,
vocabulary is insufficient.
Major language errors,
Learner didn’t yet master
language structures.
Active voice used.
Total:
/ 20
Comment: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........................................................................................
Assessed by:
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Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition.
Fielding, M., 1993: Effective Communication in Organisations.
Preparing messages that
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SAPPI College of Pulp and Paper: Papermaking N3.
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Websites
Stander, R.B., 2000.Technical Writing. http://www.rbs0.com/tw.htm.
UVIC English. The UVic Writer's Guide. The Department of English, University of Victoria,
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WTC: Writing the first draft. http://pratt.edu/~wtc/firstdraft.html
Writing the report/ assignment. http://www.lib.uct.ac.za/infolit/draft.htm
Effective Letter Writing. http://www.kanten.com/styleguide/writing.html
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Defining your topic.
http://www.opiskelijakirjasto.lib.helsinki.fi/koulutus/libtut/4searching_2.html
http://www.nampak.co.za
http://www.toiletpaperworld.com
US 8964 / 119456 Writing skills 2
Learner Guide
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