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1 Introduction to Economics Introduction The term "economy," from which we get “Economics," comes most directly from the Old French word "economie," meaning "management of a household." Definition —Lionel Robbins ‘Economics is a social science, which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means, which have alternative uses’. Four basic issues Multiplicity of wants Wants are listed in preference Scarcity of resources Alternative use of resources Modern Definition The scientific study of the choices made by individuals and societies in regard to the alternative uses of scarce resources, which are employed to satisfy wants. Meaning Economics is the study of the way people organize themselves to sustain life and enhance its quality. Individuals engage in four essential economic activities: resource maintenance, production of goods and services, distribution of goods and services, and consumption of goods and services. It is a social science that studies the allocation of scarce resources used to 2 produce goods and services that satisfy consumers' unlimited wants and needs. Social Science Social Science can be defined as a systematised body of knowledge pertaining to human relationship and groups living in society. Different aspects of human behaviour or social life of human beings is dealt with as parts of group or society and not as independent individuals. e.g. History, psychology, sociology, economics, political science. Scientific Methodology Organise reality in a rational manner by observation and gathering of data. Spotlighting aspects of data to see for emerging patterns. Formulate hypothesis. Reliability and validity of the data must be checked along with the value of sources. Economics as a Social Science Economics is a social science because it is a systematised body of knowledge regarding economic behaviour of man in society. It seeks to explain how society deals with the scarcity problem It adapts a scientific framework & it is particularly concerned with studying human behaviour and about economy as a whole 3 Steps in scientific method Recognising the problem or issue. Cutting away unnecessary details by making assumption. Developing a model or story of the problem or issue. Making predictions. Testing the model i.e. how well it predicts events. Scarcity The Excess of wants resulting from having limited resources (land, labour capital and entrepreneurs) in satisfying the endless wants of people Economics concerns itself with only those things, which are scarce. It is a Universal Problem If something is scarce, it will have value Micro Economics Microeconomics is the branch of economics that studies individual units: e.g. households, firms and industries. It studies the interrelations between these units in determining the pattern of production and distribution of goods and services. Macro Economics Macroeconomics is the branch of economics that studies the entire economy, aggregate consumption, aggregate production, aggregate investment, unemployment, inflation, business cycles and so on(grand totals):e.g. the 4 overall level of prices, output and employment in the economy. It is concerned with the economy as a whole. Positive statements They are objective statements Deal with matters of fact, evidence or they question about how things actually are. Involves no value-judgements, opinions, emotions Can be proved disproved using a scientific approach Can be described as “what is, what was, and what probably will be” economics Unbiased or Detached Depends on Logic, reason & Empiricism. Explains the way the economy actually operates E.g.Women are paid less than men. Inflation rate in 1999 was 2.5 % Normative statements Subjective Statements Value judgments based on opinion only. Cannot be proved or disproved as right or wrong. Biased and Attached. Depends on values, beliefs, preferences, self interest. Contain words such as: should, ought, or prefer. Seeks to recommend the way the economy should operate. It is the policy side of economics E.g. Women should be paid the same as men. 5 Ceteris Paribus This is a very basic (essential) assumption, which allows economic models to predict outcomes and relationships with a degree of certainty and conviction simply by assuming that variables not addressed in the model are kept constant. Ceteris paribus is an old Latin phrase that translates as ‘other things being equal’, or ‘other factors remain unchanged’. A quick method of showing that we have made the assumptions is to write ceteris paribus alongside Example What would happen to the quantity demanded of Coca-Cola in Germany if prices increased by 10%, ceteris paribus ‘ An increase in the amount of hours spent studying economics will lead, ceteris paribus, to an increase in average marks received on economics test’. Factors of Production Land, Labour, capital, and entrepreneurship used by society to produce consumer satisfying goods and services are termed as factors of production, they are also known as resources or scarce resources. Land In economics land refers to all kinds of natural resources that are freely found in nature, which are limited in supply, which can be controlled by man as used in the production of goods. Reward for land is rent. 6 Labour can be defined as any mental or physical effort (excluding entrepreneurial organization), which contributes to the production of goods and services for which it receives income. Reward for labour is wages / salaries Capital refers to that part of wealth, which is used along with labour for producing additional wealth. Reward for capital is interest. Entrepreneurship is the special sort of human effort that takes on the risk of bringing labour, capital, and land together to produce goods. or services in the expectation of a future reward. That reward is called profit in economics. Functions of an entrepreneur Management and control Risk and uncertainty bearing Innovation Factor Income Rent It is the factor payments to the owners of land for using the various resources of land in the production of goods and services Wages A factor payment to the owner of labour for using labour services in the production of goods and services 7 Interest It is the payments for the use of borrowed funds or the price paid for the use of loanable funds’ Profit Profit refers to a reward enjoyed by an entrepreneur for his entrepreneurship or for his contribution to the process of production. It is a reward for bearing of risks and uncertainties and introducing innovations. Specialisation (also known as the division of labour) This is a concept introduced into economics by Adam Smith. Smith believed that production became more efficient when workers specialized in a particular task. Rather than each worker taking responsibility for each stage of the production process, the entrepreneur would instruct each worker to take ownership of a particular task. In this way, through constant repetition and practice the worker would become more efficient. However, this situation may turn negative if the worker becomes demotivated due to the monotony of the task repetition. Utility Utility is defined as want satisfying power of a commodity so all the commodities having capacity to satisfy a want possess utility. Total utility of a commodity refers to the sum total of the utility derived by a consumer from all the units of that commodity taken together at a point of time or during a period of time. Marginal utility refers to an addition made to the total utility by consuming one more unit of a commodity 8 Opportunity cost Opportunity cost is defined as the cost of the next best alternative foregone. Opportunity cost is the option foregone in making a choice of alternative A over alternative B. When the best alternative is chosen from a range of alternatives the second best choice is known as opportunity cost. E.g .The opportunity cost of deciding not to work is the lost wages foregone The opportunity cost of spending money on a foreign holiday is the lost opportunity to buy a new dishwasher or the chance to enjoy two short breaks inside the Hong Kong. Free Goods It refer to those goods which are provided freely by nature , their supply is abundant that no price is paid for securing them .e.g. air, water, sunlight etc .All free gifts of nature are free goods Does not incur any opportunity costs in its production I.e. resources involved have no alternative uses. Economic Goods Economic goods are those goods which have utility and which are relatively scarce. Cost is incurred for producing them and price is paid for purchasing them. It uses scarce resources in being provided. 9 They have an opportunity cost of the alternative goods foregone and are the things which economists are interested in. Limited availability in relation to desired use. Exchanged through markets Basic Economic Decisions 1. What should be produced in the economy and in what quantities ? It deals with the allocation of resources to make the goods and services in right quantities that society wants with society's limited resources 2. How should production be organised? It deals with production, methodology, organization and technology for best outcome. It determines the way society's limited resources are combined in the production of goods and services 3. For whom should production take place? It is the problem of distributing Economic goods and services. Production possibility frontier Production possibility frontier shows the boundary of what is possible to produce and is used as an illustration in economics to show the choices facing all countries in producing goods, which use limited factors of production. Thus it draws the boundary between what can and cannot be achieved. PPC is also known as production transformation curve. Show the different combinations of goods and services that can be produced with a given amount of resources 10 There is no ‘ideal’ point on the curve Any point inside the curve – suggests resources are not being utilised efficiently Any point outside the curve – not attainable with the current level of resources Marginalism Marginal changes are small, incremental adjustments to an existing plan of action. People make decisions by comparing costs and benefits at the margin. Marginal changes in costs or benefits motivate people to respond. The decision to choose one alternative over another occurs when that alternative’s marginal benefits exceed its marginal costs! I.e. people make decisions at the margin and will normally adopt a positive course of action if the marginal benefits exceed the marginal costs.