Download Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)
The 51-year-old Roosevelt came from a wealthy New York family; educated at Harvard, he entered politics in
1910. At the age of 40, he was stricken with polio but overcame his disability, though he was never able to
walk unaided. He was dynamic, full of vitality and brimming with new ideas. When Franklin Roosevelt
became President on March 4, 1933, America was a nation in despair. During the election campaign he had
said « I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people. »The Great Depression had left
millions of Americans out of work. FDR took immediate action to end the crisis and to inspire Americans to
overcome their fears. As the chaos of war spread across the world, FDR prepared the country for the
challenge and ultimately led a grand coalition of nations against the Axis Powers. FDR served as President
for over 12 years—longer than any other person—during the two greatest crises of the Twentieth Century.
The Depression worsened in the months preceding Roosevelt’s inauguration, March 4, 1933. Factory
closings, farm foreclosures and bank failures increased, while unemployment soared (13 millions).
Roosevelt faced the greatest crisis in American history since the Civil War. He undertook immediate
actions to initiate his New Deal. Basically Roosevelt had three aims :

relief: to give direct help to the poverty-stricken millions who where without food and
homes.

recovery: to reduce unemployment, stimulate the demand for goods, and get the economy
moving again.

reform: to take whatever measures were necessary to prevent a repeat of the economy
disaster.
To halt depositor panics, he closed the banks temporarily. Then he worked with a special session of
Congress during the first “100 days” to pass the recovery legislation that set up the alphabet agencies
such as the AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Administration) to support farm prices and the CCC (Civilian
Conservation Corps) to employ young men. Other agencies assisted business and labor, insured bank
deposits, regulated the stock market, subsidized home and farm mortgage payments and aided the
unemployed. These measures revived confidence in the economy. Banks reopened and direct relief
saved millions from starvation. Also included in the New Deal were measures such as the Tennessee
Valley Authority (TVA), which revitalized a huge area of rural America which had been ruined by soil
erosion and careless farming. But the New Deal measures also involved government directly in areas
of social and economic life as never before and resulted in greatly increased spending and unbalanced
budgets, which led to criticisms of Roosevelt’s programs. However, the nation-at-large supported
Roosevelt and elected additional Democrats to state legislatures and governorships in the mid-term
elections. Roosevelt also tried to improve foreign relations by recognizing the Soviet Unions in
November 1933.
Another flurry of New Deal legislation followed in 1935, including the establishment of the Works
Projects Administration (WPA), which provided jobs not only for laborers but also for artists, writers,
musicians and authors, and the signing of the Social Security Act which provided unemployment
compensation and a program of old-age and survivors’ benefits. Roosevelt easily defeated Alfred M.
Landon in 1936 and went on to defeat by lesser margins, Wendell Willkie, in 1940, and Thomas E.
Dewey, in 1944. He thus became the only American president to serve more than two terms. After his
overwhelming victory in 1936, Roosevelt took on the critics of the New deal, namely, the Supreme
Court, which had declared various legislation unconstitutional, and members of his own party. In
1937, he proposed to add new justices to the Supreme Court, but critics said he was “packing” the
Court and undermining the separation of powers. His proposal was defeated, but the Court began to
decide in favor of New Deal legislation. During the 1938 election, he campaigned against many
Democratic opponents, but this backfired when most were reelected to Congress. These setbacks,
coupled with the recession that occurred midway through his second term, represented the low-point
in Roosevelt’s presidential career. Still, in spite of this, Roosevelt’s first eight years in office were a
remarkable period. Never before had an Americain government intervened so directly in the lives of
ordinary people; never before had so much attention been focused on a President.
By 1939, Roosevelt was concentrating increasingly on foreign affairs with the outbreak of war in
Europe. New Deal reform legislation diminished, and the ills of the Depression would not fully abate
until the nation mobilized for war. When Hitler attacked Poland in September 1939, Roosevelt stated
that, although the nation was neutral, he did not expect America to remain inactive in the face of
Nazi aggression. Accordingly, he tried to make American aid available to Britain, France and China and
to obtain an amendment of the Neutrality Acts, which rendered such assistance difficult. He also took
measures to build up the armed forces in the face of isolationist opposition.
With the fall of France in 1940, the American mood and Roosevelt’s policy changed dramatically.
Congress enacted a draft for military service and Roosevelt signed a “lend-lease” bill in March 1941,
to enable the nation to furnish aid to nations at war with Germany and Italy. America, though a
neutral in the war and still at peace, was becoming the “arsenal of democracy,” as its factories began
producing as they had in the years before the Depression. The Japanese surprise attack on Pearl
Harbor, December 7, 1941, irrevocably brought the nation into the war. Roosevelt exercised his
powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, a role he actively carried out. He moved to
create a “grand alliance” against the Axis powers through “The Declaration of the United Nations,”
dated January 1, 1942, in which all nations fighting the Axis agreed not to make a separate peace and
pledged themselves to a peacekeeping organization (now the United Nations) on victory. He gave
priority to the western European front and had General George Marshall, Chief of Staff, plan a holding
operation in the Pacific and organize an expeditionary force for an invasion of Europe. The D-Day
landings on the Normandy beaches in France, June 6, 1944, were followed by the allied invasion of
Germany six months later. By April 1945, victory in Europe was certain. In February 4th, Roosevelt met
with Churchill and Stalin (the big three) at Yalta to discuss post-war settlements and the United
Nations organization.
The Americain economy benefited from WWII which helped to finally put an end to depression. After
Pearl Harbor, production of armaments soared: in 1943, 86 000 aircraft were built, while in 1944 the
figure was over 96 000. It was the same with ships production. In fact the GNP of the USA almost
doubled between 1939 and 1945. In June 1940 there were still 8 million people out of work, but by
the end of 1942 there was almost full employment. It was calculated that by 1945 the war effort had
helped created 7 million extra jobs in the USA. In addition, about 15 million Americans served in the
armed forces. Economically therefore, the USA did well out of WWII, there were plenty of jobs, wages
rose steadily, and there was no decline in the standard of living as opposed to Europe.
The unending stress and strain of the war literally wore Roosevelt out. During a vacation at Warm
Springs, Georgia, on April 12, 1945, he suffered a massive stroke. He was 63 years old. President
Roosevelt was buried in the Rose Garden of his estate at Hyde Park, New York. Some historians
believe that Roosevelt’s greatest achievement was to preserve what might be called 'the Americain
middle way' (democracy and free entreprise). The authority of the federal government over the
states governments had increased and Roosevelt had put in place the structures to enable
Washington to manage the economy and social policy.
He comes in after FDR
had rendered the Presidency far more powerful than it had ever been – these executive
prerogatives have in general not been relinquished by Presidents since
Even before he came to power, the US had taken control of 42% of the Middle East’s oil
reserves by 1944 (a nineteenfold increase since 1936)– Russia and Britain were alarmed by
this surge in US expansionism ; the seizure of more islands the Pacific and the idea of
occupying and dominating Japan and Germany after the war were already in the pipeline
before Truman took office in April 1945
As FDR had the domectic crisis of the Depression and the external issue of WWII as
justifying the Presidential ascendancy, Truman had war-ravaged Europe and the onset of the
Cold War justifying the executive demands for ehhorbitant budgetary outlays (Marshall Plan
being the economic consequence of the Truman Doctrine ; the Korean War 1950 the
justification for the massive military budget called for in NSC 68)
Truman’s significant entry onto the world stage was at Potsdam (July 17 to August 2) – his
impatient, almost rude attitude with the Russians was later explained by a bemused Churchill :
« Now I know what happened to Truman. When he got to the meeting after having read the
report, he was a changed man…he bossed the whole meeting. »
Platform : as he was not elected to the Presidency he was initially obliged to continue what
FDR had started with by making ‘big government’ agencies [Department of Defense, CIA and
the Atomic Energy Commission]permanent ; this expenditure was easily justified in the
context of the Cold War with its external and internal threats ; domestically he had to face the
problems of the returning forces, inflation, strikes…
April 12, 1945
President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies in Warm Spring, Georgia; Harry S. Truman becomes the
thirty-third President of the United States.
May 8, 1945
Germany surrenders, ending World War II in Europe.
July 17 August 2, 1945
Representatives from the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union attend the Potsdam
Conference.
August 6, 1945
The United States drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan.
August 9, 1945
The United States drops an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan.
August 14, 1945
Japan surrenders, ending World War II in Asia.
September 6, 1945
Truman presents Congress with his 21-point plan for Reconversion.
1946
February 20, 1946
Truman signs the Employment Act.
February 22, 1946
State Department official George Kennan, serving in the Soviet Union, sends his "Long
Telegram," in which he analyzes the sources of Soviet conduct and Moscow's geopolitical
intentions, and suggests American responses.
March 5, 1946
Winston Churchill delivers his "Iron Curtain" speech at Westminster College in Fulton,
Missouri.
September 12, 1946
Secretary of Commerce Henry Wallace criticizes U.S. foreign policy in a speech in New York
City.
September 20, 1946
Truman asks for, and receives, Wallace's resignation.
November 5, 1946
In the midterm elections, the Republican Party wins control of Congress.
1947
March 12, 1947
Truman delivers his "Truman Doctrine" speech to Congress, asking for a $400 million
appropriation to fight the spread of Communism in Greece and Turkey.
March 21, 1947
Truman creates the Federal Employee Loyalty Program via Executive Order 9835.
April 15, 1947
Jackie Robinson plays his first game with the Brooklyn Dodgers and integrates major league
baseball.
May 22, 1947
Truman signs the "Truman Doctrine" appropriation approved by Congress for Greece and
Turkey.
June 5, 1947
George Marshall proposes economic aid to Europe in an address at Harvard University.
Officially titled the Economic Recovery Program, the package becomes known as the
"Marshall Plan."
June 20, 1947
Truman vetoes the Taft-Hartley Act.
June 23, 1947
Congress overrides Truman's veto of the Taft-Hartley Act.
June 29, 1947
Truman addresses the NAACP, the first President to do so.
July 26, 1947
The National Security Act passes Congress, creating the National Security Council, the Central
Intelligence Agency, the Department of Defense, and the National Security Resources Board.
1948
February 2, 1948
Truman sends a message to Congress asking for legislation to secure the civil rights of the
nation's minorities.
April 2, 1948
Congress passes the European Recovery Program (the "Marshall Plan").
May 14, 1948
The United States recognizes the state of Israel.
June 24, 1948
The Soviet Union blockades the overland access routes to West Berlin.
June 24, 1948
Governor Thomas Dewey of New York accepts the Republican Party nomination for
President.
June 26, 1948
In conjunction with the British, Truman orders the airlifting of supplies into West Berlin.
July 15, 1948
Truman accepts the Democratic Party nomination for President and calls for a special session
of Congress.
July 26, 1948
At the opening of a special session of the 80th Congress, Truman asks for legislation on
housing, civil rights, and price controls. The same day, the President signs Executive Order
9981, which desegregates the Armed Forces.
September 6 October 30, 1948
Truman campaigns for the presidency throughout the nation (except for the South) and
attacks the record of the "do nothing" Republican-controlled Congress.
His Platform (declared policies in the election race) were civil rights, repeal of TaftHartley Act, govt. Support for housing, education and farm income (New Deal carry-overs)
…this emerged as his Fair Deal.
November 2, 1948
Truman is elected President. The Democratic Party retakes both the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
1949
January 5, 1949
Truman proposes the "Fair Deal" in his State of the Union address.
April 4, 1949
Twelve nations from Europe and North America sign the North Atlantic Treaty.
May 12, 1949
The Soviet Union lifts the Berlin blockade.
July 15, 1949
Truman signs the Housing Act, establishing a national housing agency and providing federal
aid to slum clearance programs and low-cost housing projects.
August 4, 1949
The State Department issues its "White Paper" on China.
September 23, 1949
Truman announces that the Soviet Union has detonated an atomic bomb.
October 1, 1949
Mao Zedong announces the establishment of the People's Republic of China.
October 26, 1949
Congress raises the minimum wage from forty cents to seventy-five cents an hour.
1950
January 31, 1950
Truman announces that the United States will develop a hydrogen bomb.
February 9, 1950
Senator Joseph McCarthy (R-WI) speaks in Wheeling, West Virginia, and charges that the
State Department employs 205 known Communists.
February 14, 1950
Mao and Stalin sign the Sino-Soviet alliance.
April 7, 1950
The National Security Council presents NSC-68 to Truman.
May 24, 1950
The Wall Street Journal reports that the number of married women who work outside the
home has increased by 90 percent over the previous ten years.
June 25, 1950
North Korea invades South Korea.
June 30, 1950
Truman announces that he has ordered American ground forces stationed in Japan to Korea.
General Douglas MacArthur commands the U.S. (and United Nations) troops.
August 28, 1950
Truman signs the 1950 Social Security Amendments, expanding coverage and increasing
benefits.
September 15, 1950
United States military forces successfully spearhead a counterattack at Inchon, South Korea.
September 22, 1950
Truman vetoes the Internal Security Act.
September 23, 1950
Congress passes the Internal Security Act over Truman's veto.
September 23, 1950
Truman signs the Revenue Act of 1950, increasing corporation and income taxes.
October 15, 1950
Truman meets with MacArthur on Wake Island to discuss America's Far East policy.
November 7, 1950
Republicans make significant gains in congressional mid-term elections.
November 26, 1950
China launches a massive counteroffensive against American advances in North Korea.
December 16, 1950
Truman proclaims a state of national emergency and imposes wage and price controls.
1951
April 5, 1951
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are sentenced to death following their convictions on conspiring
to provide secret information to the Soviet Union.
April 11, 1951
Truman relieves General Douglas MacArthur from his command of both U.S. and U.N. forces
in Korea.
June 25, 1951
The first color television program is broadcast, but no color sets are available for sale.
October 10, 1951
Truman signs the Mutual Security Act, authorizing more than $7 billion for foreign economic,
military, and technical aid.
1952
March 29, 1952
Truman declares that he will not be a candidate for re-election.
April 8, 1952
Truman signs an Executive Order directing the secretary of commerce to seize steel mills in
order to prevent a strike by steel workers.
June 2, 1952
The Supreme Court declares the seizure of steel mills unconstitutional in a six-to-three vote.
June 25, 1952
Truman vetoes the McCarran-Walter Immigration Bill.
June 26 and June 27, 1952
The House of Representatives and the Senate override Truman's veto of the McCarranWalter Act.
July 11, 1952
General Dwight D. Eisenhower receives the Republican nomination for President.
July 26, 1952
Governor Adlai Stevenson (IL) receives the Democratic nomination for President.
September 2 November 1, 1952
Truman campaigns on behalf of Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson.
November 1, 1952
The United States detonates the first hydrogen bomb.
November 4, 1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower is elected President.
Presidents in the 2000 Wall Street Journal poll, all had:
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Presidents_and_control_of_Congress)

both houses for 100% of their time in office except, of the top six, Washington, and
of the remaining twelve, Adams, James Polk, Grover Cleveland, Woodrow Wilson,
Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan.

the house for at least 75% of their time in office except Polk, Eisenhower and Reagan.

the senate for at least 75% of their time in office except Adams, Cleveland and
Eisenhower.

won two elections and/or served more than four years except Adams, Polk and John F.
Kennedy.

the inclusion of all full-term presidents who controlled both houses except Martin Van
Buren, Calvin Coolidge and Jimmy Carter.
He placed the Civil Rights issue at the centre of political discourse
He helped extend social security to 10 million more people in the US
He raised minimum wage
Cleared slums, established mow-income housing and rent controls
Agricultural Act to help farmers
Enlarged govt. Civil service
The Reclamation Bureau (floods, hydroelectric plants, irrigation)
A brilliant opportunist: read the fine-print of the Truman Doctrine (I sent it to you earlier this
year or last year!!!)
Negative?
Pugnacious initiator of the Cold War/NATO/Arms race...his attitude to USSR was counterproductive in the sense it led to nuclear proliferation & enormous budgetary deficits
Four Point Program for Latin America, Asia...long-term debt
Enlarged govt. Civil service (cost, big govt.)
Oversaw growth of military-industrial complex
Failed to persuade Congress on many aspects of his Fair Deal
Kick started the McCarthyism of 1950 with his FBI and Civil Service Commission
investigations of ‘loyalty’... 3 million investigated as possible security risks
EISENHOWER
Platform
ð
ð
Defeats Senator Robert Taft for presidential nomination
Republican Party (liberal), Richard Nixon as Vice President
ð
ð
ð
ð
ð
Eisenhower promised to get US out of Korea + clean “up the mess in
Washington” (= communists). Criticized Truman’s administration for the
Korean War.
Republican slogan : “It’s time for a change” (-> Roosevelt + Truman =
Democrats)
Eisenhower + Nixo = two strong family men. Republican used this image to
support the idea of “American family” to present issues that appealed to
women.
3 major themes : Korean War, corruption in government and a balanced budget
(= restoring economic prosperity)
Eisenhower won with 57% of popular vote and 442 to 89 electoral vote =>
huge success
Events
ð 1953 : Senator Joseph McCarthy continues hearings on communist subversion in
America and investigates communist infiltration of the Armed Forces.
ð February 1953 : Eisenhower removes government controls on wages and salaries.
ð March 1953 : Death of Stalin
ð April 1953 : creation of Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Hobby is
named as first secretary of it, second woman to serve a presidential cabinet.
ð May 1953 : Submerged Lands Act = give state the underwater natural resources of the
coasts.
ð July 1953 : New Look, policy of nuclear deterrence, gave priority to inexpensive
nuclear weapons + reducing the funding for other military forces to keep pressure on
Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits.
ð July 1953 : signing of armistice at Panmunjon = Korean War cease fire, calls for
demilitarized zone, voluntary repatriation of prisoners + establishement of the thirtyeighth parallel as boundary between North and South Korea.
ð August 1953 : USSR try first hydrogen bomb
ð January 1954 : first nuclear submarine
ð March 1954 : Vietminh begin their siege of Dien Bien Phu
ð May 1954 : Vietnam is divided in two (Geneva Conference)
ð May 1954 : Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education, the Supreme Court rules that
segregated schools are “inherently unequal.”
ð July 1954 : Geneva Accords are signed, establishing a cease-fire and partition of
Vietnam.
ð August 1954 : Communist Party is banned in the U.S
ð September 1954 : Social Security Amendments of 1954 include increased benefits of
old-age + survivors insurance. Expands coverage to include farmers, + professional
people + others, adding 7.5 million additional persons to the Social Security rolls.
ð September 1954 : Southeast Asia Defense Treaty (SEATO) is signed.
ð October 1954 : West Germany is admitted to NATO
ð December 1954 : mutual defense pact with Taiwan + Senate votes to censure Senator
Joseph McCarthy.
ð April 1955 : deaths attributed to polio declines by 50 percent thanks to the production
of new vaccine led by federal government
ð May 1955 : Warsaw pact
ð August 1955 : Eisenhower signs a bill increasing the minimum wage to one dollar an
hour
ð December 1955 : Rosa Parks is arrested in Montgomery
ð June 1956 : Eisenhower approves U-2 spy flights over the Soviet Union + National
Defense Interstate Highway Act, creating the interstate highway system
ð August 1956 : Suez Crisis
ð November 1956 : Eisenhower re-elected
ð 1957 : Business recession, over five million are unemployed
ð January 1957 : creation of Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) [MLK]
ð March 1957 : Eisenhower Doctrine (Middle East)
ð July 1957 : opening of the International Geophysical Year
ð September 1957 : Civil Rights Act + Eisenhower sends federal troops to enforce
federal court ordered integration at Little Rock Central High School.
ð October 1957 : Sputnik is launched
ð January 1958 : first American satellite sent to orbit, Explorer I
ð July 1958 : creation of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
ð September 1958 : National Defense Education Act, which provides loans for college
students majoring in math, science and foreign languages.
ð January 1959 : Fidel Castro’s guerrilla forces overthrow the Batista regime in Cuba.
ð May 1960 : U-2 reconnaissance plane piloted by Francis Gary Powers is shot down
over the U.S.S.R.
ð November 1960 : John F. Kennedy defeats Vice President Richard M. Nixon in
presidential election
Congress
ð Republican Congress from 1953 to 1955
ð Democratic Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson in the Senate and Speaker Sam
Rayburn in the House for the rest of the time
Budget
ð GDP : 372M to 518M between 1953 and 1960
ð Debt decreased by 11% during first term (1953-1957) and 5.2% during second term
(1957-1961)
ð Surplus of 300M after he left in 1960
John Fitgerald Kennedy (1917/1963)
The 1960 election :
- faced Richard Nixon as the Republican candidate
- considered inexperienced and had a poor Congress record vs. Nixon who had the
advantage of being the Vice-Presdt during Eisenhower’s peace and prosperity years
- he was a catholic (the Us had never had a catholic presdt before)
BUT: appeared youthful, had a good campaign team, + general sense of unease w/
growing threat of communism (1957- Sputnik, 1959 – Castro’s rise to power)
promised a
“new frontier” to “get the country moving again” + called for a “supreme national effort” to
reverse the economy (in recession since 58).
Nixon insisted the US was stronger in relation to the Communist world than ever + promised
to build a more secure nation on the foundation of Eisenhower’s policies.
Television debates played a crucial role as the nation became impressed with JFK’s wit and
casualness.
- Although he had been known for showing little interest in the civil rights: phoned
King’s wife when he was arrested in Atlanta in October to express his sympathy + Bobby
used his influence to get him out of prison
secured his black support
Won with a very slim majority. L.B. Johnson became his vice-presdt.
Kennedy and Congress:
- His party held the majority in both Houses of Congress BUT he achieved quite little
because he had southern and conservative Democrats against him
Domestic policies:
Economy:
- faced serious economic prbs: very strong unemployement (5 million in
January 61, nearly 8% of hte population) and slow economic growth
- He responded by encouraging employement
Congress increased
minmumu wage to $.25 an hour ; wage/hour protection was increased to 4 million more
workers.
- also encouraged housing
Area Redevelopement Act (1961) authorized
long-term loans at low interest for construction of moderate-income housing + $1.5 billion to
aid constrction of medical schools and assist colleges
- Trade Expansion Act of 1962 allowed the presdt to cut tariffs on products +
provided aid for endangered industries
reponse to the creation of the European Common
Market which would affect Us economy.
- The Space Programm: 1961- russians sent the first astronaut in orbit around
the earth (Yuri Gagarin)
only in February 62 to the Americans do the same.
Kennedy concerned that Us would loose the race into space
commits the US to a space
programm to become first in space exploration land a man on the moon by 1970
Great source of jobs : 9000 research firms ; by 64 more than 30000
scientists working at NASA ... in total 3 to 5 million Americans were engaged in some way in
it.
Changes in suffrage:
- 23rd Amendment to the Constitution (61) ened poll taxes which
had prevented many poor blacks from voting + “one person one vote”
more genuine
representative govts.
Civil Rights: - had sent a strong civil rights bill to Congress but which got stuck in committee
because of a lack of southern conservative support.
Foreign policy:
- faced a changing world w/ the growing competition of Japanese, Russian and
european business + entry of a large number of new countries (from decolonization) into the
UN
changing relationships because they wished to be non-aligned. Solid fronts of the
two blocks were strained: relations between USSR and China worsened and France was
becoming more and more unhappy about Amrican domination.
- Kennedy generally followed Truman’s and Eisenhower’s foreign policies.
The Peace Corps: - govt-supported programm of volunteer americans who went to live in
underdeveloped countries and helped them w/ day to day pbs
success from it’s beginning
(1961) , by 1970 : served in 59 different countries.
Symbolized USA’s desire to bring human assistance + it’s
economic and military leadership over the non-communist world.
Troubles in Africa: - June 1960 : indepdce of Congo from Belgium (Rep. of Zaire). Procommunist and pro-western roces batteld for power
UN sent troops to police the troubled
nation and avoided a large scale civil war (though did not stop the bloodsehd).
- 1961 : leader of comunist forces assassinated
Krushchev
demanded withdrawal of UN troops & threatened to interfere but Kennedy warned that US
would defend UN operation. W/ strong Us backing the UN contuinued peacemaking and by
65 the war was over.
The Bay of Pigs:
- January 30th, 1961: State of the Union Adress
rejected
Eisenhower’s passivity / failure in the CW ; promised to take battle for freedom to the
southern hemisphere
- April 17th 1961 : JFK orders invasion of Cuba => disaster => gave
Castro propaganda victory
- orderded to kill Castro => failure => further embarrassement,
compromised US’s position of moral superiority in propaganda aspect of the CW
- Kennedy + his secretary of state increase Military budget from $40
bilion (1961) to $56 billion (1963) => LAUCH OF ARMS RACE.
Alliance for Progress: to deal w/ communist presence in Cuba
19 Latin American States
+ USA joined by 61 => 10 year programm to imporve social & economic conditions in Latin
Am. Finances were to come from private and public business in Latin Am. + US, Japan,
Europe and World Bank.
- see Bible + Mr. Moran’s course
- results: both sides could claim victory
both sides realized how easily a nuclear war could have been
started
‘hot-line’ installed between Moscow and Washington
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: powers agreed to carry out nuclear
tests only underground to avoid polluting the atmosphere any further
Missile crisis :
American involvment in the Vietnam war: Kennedy shared Eisenhower’s fear of the
‘domino theory’ => increased military aid and sending of advisers to Sth Vietanm when
guerilla activities increased.
Lyndon Baines Johnson,
American Democrat President from 1963 to 1968.
Major Events While in Office:

Vietnam Conflict Continues (1963 - 1969)

Civil Rights Act (1964)

Twenty-Fourth Amendment ratified outlawing the poll tax (1964)

Medicare and Medicaid (1965)

Twenty-Fifth Amendment ratified concerning the order of succession for the
presidency (1967)
Platform :
The Democrats adopted a social reform platform, with President Johnson, also known as LBJ,
campaigning as a candidate of peace, pledging not to widen US military involvement in
Vietnam.
He said the victory was "a mandate for unity for a government that serves no special interest
... it will be a government that provides equal opportunity for all and special privileges for
none."
Congress :
House : the Democrats took 293 of the 435 seats in the House of Representatives.
Senate : Democrats won 27 of the 35 seats in the Senate.
Midterms : the Democrats lost 47 seats in the House and 4 in the Senate.
1963 : November 22, Lyndon Baines Johnson became the 36th President of the United States
following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in Dallas, Texas. In an address before a joint
session of Congress on November 27, Johnson pledged support for President Kennedy's
legislative agenda, which included civil rights and education legislation.
1964 : In a speech at the University of Michigan, May 22, Johnson spoke of a "Great
Society." He said, "The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an
end to poverty and racial injustice, to which we are totally committed in our time. But that is
just the beginning." The speech set the tone for the fall campaign.
July 2, signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in a televised ceremony at the White House. The
far-reaching law included provisions to protect the right to vote, guarantee access to public
accommodations, and withhold federal funds from programs administered in a discriminatory
fashion.
On August 7, with only two dissenting votes in the Senate and none in the House, Congress
passed the Southeast Asia Resolution (often called the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) backing
him in taking "all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the
United States and to prevent further aggression." Johnson signed the resolution on August 10.
August 20, in the White House Rose Garden, Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act.
The act established the Office of Economic Opportunity to direct and coordinate a variety of
educational, employment, and training programs which were the foundation of President
Johnson's "War on Poverty."
August 26, nominated for President of the United States at the Democratic National
Convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Hubert Humphrey nominated for Vice President.
November 3, elected President of the United States with the greatest percentage of the total
popular vote (61%) ever attained by a Presidential candidate. Hubert Humphrey was elected
Vice President.
Johnson signs the Food Stamp Act , establishing the federal food stamp program to help poor
families improve their diets.
1965 : January 20, Johnson took the Oath of Office as President of the United States. The
"Great Society" program became the agenda for Congress: aid to education, protection of civil
rights (including the right to vote), urban renewal, Medicare, conservation, beautification,
control and prevention of crime and delinquency, promotion of the arts, and consumer
protection.
Johnson's foreign policy rested on four principles: deterring and resisting aggression,
promoting economic and social progress, encouraging cooperation among nations of the same
region and seeking reconciliation with the communist world.
President Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act on April 11. The act
was the first federal general aid to education law and focused on disadvantaged children in
city slums and rural areas.
As the situation in South Vietnam deteriorated, President Johnson began enlarging the U. S.
commitment in Vietnam. On July 28, he announced that he had ordered U. S. military forces
in Vietnam increased from 75,000 men to 125,000. He said he would order further military
increases as they were needed, committing the United States to major combat in Vietnam.
July 30, signed the Medicare bill in a ceremony at the Harry S. Truman Library in
Independence, Missouri. The act established a medical care program for the aged under the
Social Security System.
At a signing ceremony televised from the Capitol Rotunda on August 6, President Johnson
signed the Voting Rights Act. The bill provided for direct federal action to enable Negroes to
register and vote. In 1969, in his final press conference as President, Johnson cited passage of
the Voting Rights Act as his greatest accomplishment.
In November, Johnson signs the Higher Education Act, which increases federal money given
to universities, creates scholarships and low interest student loans and establishes a National
Teacher Corps.
1966 : July, signs the Freedom of Information Act.
1967 : The 25th Amendment to the US Constitution is ratified. It provides for the
appointment of the Vice President as successor to the President if he cannot fulfill his
responsibilities as President.
The 6 day war is fought in the Middle East, first use of the hotline between Soviet Premier
and American President.
Detroit Race Riots, race riots erupts because LBJ failed to improve the livibg conditions in the
ghettoes.
LBJ starts to lose support because of :
- The Vietnam War.
- Too much federal spendings.
- Taxations were too high, but LBj needed them to finance his « Great Society » projects.
1968 : Johnson signs the 1968 Civil Rights Act, which primarly includes provisions for fair
housing.
On October 22, 1968, Lyndon Johnson signed the Gun Control Act, one of the largest and
most far reaching federal gun control laws in American history. This act represented a
dramatic increase in federal power. Much of the motivation for this large expansion of federal
gun regulations came as a response to the murders of John and Robert Kennedy and MLK.
Increase the number of American soldiers in Vietnam up to 550,000.
Richard Nixon
Reconciliation was the first goal set by President Richard M. Nixon. The Nation was painfully
divided, with turbulence in the cities and war overseas. His accomplishments while in office
included revenue sharing, ending the draft, enacting new anticrime laws and instituting a
broad environmental program. As he had promised, he appointed justices of conservative
philosophy to the Supreme Court. One of the most dramatic events of his first term occurred
in 1969, when American astronauts made the first moon landing. Some of his most acclaimed
achievements came in his quest for world stability. During visits in 1972 to Beijing and
Moscow, he reduced tensions with China and the U.S.S.R. His summit meetings with Russian
leader Leonid I. Brezhnev produced a treaty to limit strategic nuclear weapons. In January
1973, he announced an accord with North Viet Nam to end American involvement in
Indochina. In 1974, his Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, negotiated disengagement
agreements between Israel and its opponents, Egypt and Syria. But the Watergate scandal
ultimately led to his resignation.
Presidency
January 20, 1969 - August 9, 1974
In his 1972 bid for office, Nixon defeated Democratic candidate George McGovern by one of
the widest margins on record. Within a few months, his administration was embattled over the
so-called “Watergate” scandal, stemming from a break-in at the offices of the Democratic
National Committee during the 1972 campaign. The break-in was traced to officials of the
Committee to Re-elect the President. A number of administration officials resigned, and some
were later convicted of offenses connected with efforts to cover up the affair. Nixon denied
any personal involvement, but the courts forced him to yield tape recordings that indicated
that he had, in fact, tried to divert the investigation. As a result of unrelated scandals in
Maryland, Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigned in 1973. Nixon nominated, and Congress
approved, House Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford as Vice President. Faced with what seemed
almost certain impeachment, Nixon announced on August 8, 1974, that he would resign the
next day to begin “that process of healing which is so desperately needed in America.”
March 17, 1969
Nixon orders secret bombings of Cambodia to destroy North Vietnamese supply routes
and base camps, commencing with "Operation Breakfast."
March 17, 1969
Nixon orders secret bombings of Cambodia to destroy North Vietnamese supply routes
and base camps, commencing with "Operation Breakfast."
July 20, 1969
Apollo 11 lands on the moon. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin are
the first men to walk on the Moon.
July 25, 1969
Bolstered by the success of Apollo 11, Nixon outlines what became known as the
Nixon or Guam Doctrine during an informal press conference in Guam. In a major
break from past policy, he declares that while the United States will still provide arms
and aid to its Asian allies, the U.S. will no longer send military forces.
November 3, 1969
Nixon outlines the policy of “Vietnamization” whereby the United States would
provide South Vietnam with equipment and financial aid but withdraw American
troops. He asks for the support of the “silent majority.”
November 24, 1969
President Nixon joins Great Britain and the USSR in signing a Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty designed to reduce the distribution and production of nuclear
weapons.
May 4, 1970
Following four days of unrest on the campus of Kent State University, Ohio National
Guardsmen fire on protestors, killing four students and wounding nine others.
March, 1971 26th
Amendment lowering the voting age to 18 (federal and state elections)
June 10, 1971
President Nixon lifts a more than twenty-year old embargo on trade with China.
July 9, 1971
Nixon sends Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to Peking, China, to arrange with
Prime Minister Chou en Lai a visit for President Nixon.
August 15, 1971
In an effort to stabilize the dollar and curtail inflation, President Nixon takes the
United States off the gold standard.
February 21, 1972
Nixon visits the People’s Republic of China.
May 20, 1972
Nixon visits Austria, U.S.S.R., Iran and Poland and signs the Strategic Arms
Limitation Treaty (SALT I), limiting each nations’ strategic arms.
May 28, 1972
After two failed attempts, members of the Committee for the Re-election of the
President (CREP) break into the Democratic National Committee Headquarters at the
Watergate. They install an electronic device on the telephone of the executive director
of the state Democratic chairmen and one on the telephone of Democratic National
Committee Chairman Lawrence F. O’Brien. The team leaves without detection.
June 17, 1972
Members of CREP break in to the Democratic National Committee Headquarters a
second time to reposition the bugs. Around 1:00 a.m., a Watergate security officer,
notices that the doors into the stairwell were taped open long after the cleaning staff
had gone home. He calls the police and the five burglars are arrested.
June 23, 1972
Haldeman and Nixon discuss the progress of the FBI’s investigation, especially the
tracing of the source of money found on the burglars. They propose having the CIA
ask the FBI to halt its investigation of the Watergate break-in by claiming that the
break-in was a national security operation. This conversation is commonly referred to
as the “smoking gun.”
November 7, 1972
Nixon is re-elected to a second term by one of the widest margins on record.
January 22, 1973
The Supreme Court’s ruling in Roe v. Wade legalizes abortions.
January 27, 1973
Peace treaty ending the Vietnam War is signed in Paris.
July 23, 1973
Watergate Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox requests a particular conversation
between President Nixon and his aides. President Nixon refuses to hand over the
recordings, citing his right to executive privilege.
October 6, 1973
During the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, a coalition of Arab nations led by Egypt
and Syria launch a surprise attack against Israel. This immediately commences a
period of intense negotiations between Israel, supported by the United States, and the
Arab nations, supported by the U.S.S.R. Henry Kissinger, Nixon’s Secretary of State,
plays a pivotal role in brokering eventual peace.
October 10, 1973
Facing charges of corruption, Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigns. Gerald R. Ford
will replace Agnew as Vice President.
October 19, 1973
Several Arab states declare an embargo on oil exports to the United States in
opposition to the United States support of Israel in ongoing Arab-Israeli war.
November 7, 1973
Congress passes the War Powers resolution over President Nixon’s veto. Under the
new legislation, all Presidents must have Congressional approval before committing
troops to a military action for more than sixty days.
July 8, 1974
The Supreme Court unanimously rules that President Nixon must turn over the
subpoenaed tapes.
July 27, 1974
After months of televised hearings, the House Judiciary Committee votes for approval
by the full House of three articles of impeachment against President: 1) obstruction of
justice 2) abuse of power 3) defying Congressional subpoenas.
August 5, 1974
The “Smoking Gun” tape, in which President Nixon and H.R. Haledman discuss using
the CIA to keep the FBI from investigating the Watergate break in is made public.
August 8, 1974
In a television broadcast, Nixon announces to the Nation his resignation that would be
effective the next day.
Additional information: campaign program >> cf. p894 paragraph “Richard M. Nixon” in the
TOTAN. The popular vote was only won against H.H.Humphrey by 260 000. The democrats
kept control of Congress, even after the landslide victory of 1972 (presidential elections).
Gerald Ford (1913-2006, psdt from 74 to 76)
He was an accidental psdt, succeeding to Nixon afterhis resignation, being the Vice-Prsdt
(Republican). Unlike Nixon he delegated considerable power to his cabinet members.
Ford and Congress:
- Congressional elections of 74 : democrat majority in both houses.
- made inital efforts to work w/ the democrat-dominated Congress but his
pardon of Nixon soon made his efforts useless. Relations w/ Congress during his presidency were
characterised by conflict
during his 2 years he vetoed 66 bills (beating Hovver’s record)
mainly on social programms.
Domestic policies:
The Nixon Pardon & Ford’s amnesty programm:
- A month after he took office he granted Nixon an unconditional pardon =>
defended his action by saying he acted to prevent further division of the country
Lost much of the early confidence he had won.
- announced an amnesty for Vietnam deserters and draft evaders on condition
of a 2 year service for local communities
highly controversial, contributed to his loss of
popularity.
Economic Pbs:
- by 74, US was suffering from stagflation ( slow economic growth, high
inflation + as a result of it high unemployement) + energy crisis (December 73 – OPEC countries
quadrupled the price of oil after the Yum Kippur war).
- concentrated his efforts on curbing inflation => wanted a reduction of govt
spending and higher taxes BUT most congressmen favoured a tax cut and increased govt spending
to reflate the economy and reduce unemployment
As inflation ( by 74, 12%) and unemployment worsened => Ford changed his mind
and allowed a tax cut for low earners and a plan for public-service employment
did not help
his reputation.
Foreign policy:
- generally followed Nixon’s foreign policy (= détente)
- early in 75: urged Congress to provide $222 million in military aid to
Cambodia BUT refused.
- ‘Mayagez’ incident
unarmed American cargo ships were seized by
Cambodian Communists. Ford sent military forces to free the vessels => criticized by some, praised
by others for taking decisive action.
- changes in détente: Ford had taken over negociations for a trade agreement
w/ the USSR. Senator Jockson of Washington insisted that agreement should be made only if USST
relaxed its emigration policies => in 1974 it increased the number of visas for Jews BUT then
turned over and rejected agreements because US interference in Moscow was intolerable
big
stepback for the policy of détente.
Elections on 1976: economy performing very badly
came close to being rejected form
Republican nomination (in front of Ronald Reagan). Jimmy Carter won the democratic nomination
and promised full employment, national healthcare, welfare reform, aid to the cities, a new energy
policy and more ‘openness’ in govt => Carter won the elections.
Jimmy Carter
Winning a close election against President Gerald R. Ford on November 2, 1976,
Carter became the first president from the Deep South since before the Civil War.
Carter could point to a number of achievements in domestic affairs. Unfortunately,
inflation and interest rates were at near record highs, and efforts to reduce them
caused a short recession. In foreign affairs his achievements included the Camp
David Accords and the Panama Canal and SALT II treaties. However, the Iranian
hostage crisis dominated the last 14 months of the administration. This and
continuing inflation at home, contributed to Carter’s defeat in 1980. Even then, he
continued the difficult negotiations over the hostages. Iran finally released the 52
Americans the same day Carter left office.
January 21, 1977: Carter releases 9,000 men that where in jails because they where
evaders of the Vietnam War and also upgraded 19,000 other.
March 30, 1977: Secretary of State Cyrus Vance presents a SALT II arms reduction
proposal to Soviet leadership in Moscow, intending to give the U.S. a unilateral
advantage, and is rejected.
April 18, 1977: Carter addresses the nation on the emerging energy, proposing
additional taxes on gasoline and fuel-efficient automobiles.
September 7, 1977: Carter and Panamanian President Omar Torrijos Herrera sign the
Panama Canal Treaty, handing control of the canal to Panama in 1999 and
guaranteeing the canal’s neutrality.
October 5, 1977: Carter signs International Covenants on Human Rights.
June 28, 1978: Supreme Court Case Regents of the University of California vs. Allan
Bakke is decided, upholding the constitutionality of affirmative action programs but
invalidating quota systems.
September 17, 1978: Carter signs the Camp David Accords producing “a framework
for peace” in the Middle East. The Camp David meetings are landmark negotiations
between Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian Prime Minister Anwar
Sadat.
October 20, 1978: Carter signs the House of Representatives Resolution for the Equal
Rights Amendment (ERA), ensuring equal rights protected by American law
regardless of sex.
November 9, 1978: Carter signs the National Energy Act, deregulating natural gas
prices and paving way for similar progress with oil.
December 15, 1978: Carter announces normalization of relations between the
United States and the People’s Republic of China. Soon after, The United States and
China establish formal diplomatic relations for the first time since 1949. In January,
Chinese Premier Deng Xiaoping visits Washington, D.C. During the nine-day state
visit, Deng and Carter agree upon cultural and scientific exchanges.
March 1, 1979: The U.S. recognizes Taiwan as a part of China, and the countries
exchange ambassadors and established embassies.
March 28, 1979: The worst nuclear accident in the U.S. occurs at Three Mile Island,
Pennsylvania, and causes serious apprehension of American perusal of atomic
energy.
June 12, 1979: Carter proposes National Health Plan to Congress.
June 18, 1979: Carter and the Soviet Union’s Leonid Brezhnev signs the Strategic
Arms Limitation Talks II (SALT II) Treaty in Vienna, limiting each nations’ strategic
weapons.
July 15, 1979: Carter delivers his “malaise” speech on national television, calling
Americans out on their “crisis of confidence.” Though initially received positively, the
public eventually attributes problems to Carter’s lack of leadership.
October 17, 1979: The Department of Education is established.
November 4, 1979: The 444-day Iran Hostage Crisis begins when Iranian students
take hostage the staff of the U.S. Embassy in Tehran in response to the Shah of Iran’s
medical stay in the U.S.
January 23, 1980: In the State of the Union address, Carter announces the “Carter
Doctrine,” designating all Soviet military interference in the Middle East a direct
threat to U.S. national security.
February 20, 1980: Carter urges U.S. withdrawal from 1980 Summer Olympic Games
in Moscow in response to Soviet refusal to withdraw from Afghanistan.
April 24, 1980: In the Iranian hostage rescue attempt “Desert One,” eight men die in
helicopter accidents subsequent to Carter’s cancellation of the raid. Secretary of
State, Cyrus Vance, who opposed the mission, resigns.
November 4, 1980: Ronald Reagan wins presidential election.
December 2, 1980: Carter signs the Alaska lands legislation, protecting over 100
million acres from exploitation.
January 9, 1981: Carter negotiates final terms for release of hostages from the Iran
Hostage Crisis.
Ronald Reagan
Elections (1980 & 1984):`
1980
 faced Jimmy Carter as the Democratic candidate
 considered as a « dangerous right-wing radical » according to Carter
- Through the 1970’s the United States underwent a period of low economic growth, High
inflation and interest rates. Jimmy Carter was blamed for the Iran hostage crisis ( a group of
islmaic students and militants took over the Embassy of the US in support of the Iranian
révolution)
 Reagan promised a restoration of the nation’s military strength, he also promised to
restore economic health (balanced budget within three years…)
 His most famous campaign quote was : "A recession is when your neighbor loses his job.
A depression is when you lose yours. And recovery is when Jimmy Carter loses his."
 Reagan, also announced his dedication to women's rights and his intention to, if elected,
appoint women to his cabinet and the first female justice to the Supreme Court
 November 4th 1980, Ronald Reagan with his running mate George H.W Bush beat
Jimmy Carter by almost 10 percentage points (50.71%)
1984 :
 faced Walter Mondale (former vice president during Carter’s presidency)
 Reagan’s campaign was very skilled at producing effective television advertising, with
« America is back ! »
 Having already helped the nation, Reagan had more chance to win the elections than his
opponent.
 Re-elected November 6th winning with 49 states (525-13)
Reagan and the Congress : Reagan learned how to co-exist with the Congress, making it approve
it’s four aims, « for America Is Back ! »
Domestic affairs :
- The « Reaganomics » : refers to the economic policies promoted by the President.
The country experienced a decade of stagflation (rising of unemployment , economic growth low+
inflation) Four aims :
1. Reduce Growth of Government spending
2. Reduce Income tax and Capital Gains tax
3. Reduce Government régulation
4. Control the money supply to reduce inflation
Reagan's policies are widely recognized as bringing about the longest peacetime economic
expansion in U.S. history
Signed the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (income tax lowered)
October 7th 1981 : The Fifty States Project for Women is launched to identify
and revise state legislation that discriminates against woman
September 1982 :The Tax Equity & Fiscal Responsibility Act created, that
modified aspects of the 1981 Economic Recovery Tax Act (ERTA) is signed at the Ranch
(his home).
January 6th 1983 : The Surface Transportation Assistance Act is signed,
providing federal assistance to the Nation’s highway and bridge infrastructure.
The next day the Nuclear Waste Policy Act is signed, establishing a national
radioactive waste disposal program.
July 17th 1984: The Minimum Drinking Age Bill is signed, establishing 21
years as the minimum age for purchase and public possession of alcoholic beverages.
After his election, in 1985, The Youth Employment Opportunity Wage
Initiatives are launched, providing summer job opportunities for youth.
Same year, The Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act, also known as the Balanced
Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985, is signed in efforts to cut the budget
deficit.
1986, Reagan tries to discuss his welfare plan
Novemebr 86 : The Immigration Reform and Control Act is signed to reduce
illegal immigration to the U.S.
The Economic Bill of Rights is launched. In 1987
October 1987, the Stock Market crashes
1988 The Medicare Catastrophic Coverage Act is signed, expanding the
Medicare Program.
Foreign affairs
-Lebanon :American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, a part of a multinational force during the
Lebanese Civil War who had been earlier deployed by Reagan, were attacked on October 23, 1983.
But withdrew. Osama bin Laden would later cite Reagan's withdraw of forces as a sign of American
weakness.
-On October 25, 1983, only two days later, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada, code
named Operation Urgent Fury, where a 1979 coup d'état had established an independent nonaligned Marxist-Leninist government.-> the first major military operation conducted by U.S. forces
since the Vietnam War, several days of fighting commenced, resulting in a U.S. victory.
-Cold War : Reagan « escalated » the Cold war, accelerating a reversal from the Policy of Detente
(1979) following th Soviet invasion of Afghanistan  ordered massive buildup of US Armed
Forces
March 1983, Reagan introduced the SDI, (Strategic Defense Initiative)
Also known as the « Star Wars » défense project that would have used ground and space-based
systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles
Some people think that SDI hastened the end of the Cold War.
End of the Cold War : After President Reagan's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not further
dramatically build up its military
Reagan recognized the change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Mikhail Gorbachev,
and shifted to diplomacy, with a view to encourage the Soviet leader to pursue substantial arms
agreements.
June 1987 : Reagan is in Berlin, and pushes Gorbachev further by saying : « Mr. Gorbachev, tear
down this wall!"
The START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was later quickly signed . Berlin Wall torn down
1989
-Libya bombing : Relations between Libya and the U.S. under President Reagan were continually
contentious, beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1981.
-The Iran-Contra affair : In 1986, a scandal shook the administration stemming from the use of
proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran to fund the Contras in Nicaragua, which had been
specifically outlawed by an act of Congress.  largest political scandal in the US during 80s.