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Memory
Cognition
The Process of
Thought
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Key Question:
What is Memory?
Human memory is an
information processing
system that works
constructively to encode,
store, and retrieve
information
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What is Memory?
Any system – human, animal, or machine – that
encodes, stores, and retrieves information
Metaphors for Memory
•Cognitive psychologists see human
memory more as an interpretive
system, such as an artist, rather than a
system that takes an accurate
recording, such as a video recorder
Human Memory is Good at:
•Information on which
attention is focused
•Information in which we
are interested
•Information that arouses us
emotionally
•Information that fits with
our previous experiences
•Information that we
rehearse
Vague Memory
•Images that serve well enough in everyday life
but are sparse in details
•Example: The image of a nickel
…we automatically fill in the gaps and missing
details without realizing how much of the memory
we are actually creating
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
Storage
The Process of Remembering
1. Select a certain stimulus out
of many
2. Identify the distinctive
features
3. Mentally label it to make it
meaningful
Retrieval
Elaboration
Deliberate encoding
in which you
connect a new
concept with
existing information
in your memory
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
Storage
•The retention of
encoded material
over time
Retrieval
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
•Involves the
location and
recovery of
information
from memory
Testing Your Memory
• Try to recall as many of the following words as
possible without writing any of the down
comforter
night
moon
blanket
pillow
snoring
dreams
avocado
clock
tired
blanket
pajamas
monkey
dark
bedspread
blanket
quiet
peaceful
comforter
night
moon
blanket
pillow
snoring
dreams
avocado
clock
tired
blanket
pajamas
monkey
dark
bedspread
blanket
quiet
peaceful
How Do We
Form Memories?
Each of the three memory
stages encodes and stores
memories in a different way,
but they work together to
transform sensory experience
into a lasting record that has a
pattern of meaning
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Preserves brief
sensory
impressions of
stimuli
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
•On the next slide, you will see a series
of letters for one second
•Try to remember as many letters as
you can
•DO NOT WRITE THEM DOWN
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
DJB
XHG
C LY
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• How many can you recall?
DJB
XHG
C LY
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• A. Capacity/Duration
• Holds the barrage of incoming
sensations just long enough for
brain to scan it and decide which
information needs attention….1/4
of a sec
• Lasts just long enough to dissolve
into another and give us a sense
of flow and continuity in our
experience
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• Actual storage capacity can be 12 or more items, but all but 3 or 4
disappear before they enter our consciousness
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• B. Structure/Function
• There is as separate sensory register for each
sense…each holds a different kind of sensory
information
Visual Stimulation = Iconic Memory
Auditory Stimulation = Echoic Memory
Tactile (touch) Stimulation = Tactile Sensory Memory
Olfactory Stimulation = Olfactory Sensory Memory
Gustatory Stimuli = Gustatory Sensory Memory
The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• The job of sensory memory is to store these images briefly
If they were held too long, they would interfere with new
information
• Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form
of nerve impulses
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Preserves recently
perceived events or
experiences for less
than a minute without
rehearsal, also called
short-term memory or
STM
Long-term
Memory
The Second Stage: Working Memory
• Working memory consists
of…
• A central executive
• A phonological loop
• The sketchpad
Three Parts of Working Memory
• Central Executive:
Directs attention to material retrieved from LTM or to important input from the
sensory memory
• Phonological Loop:
Temporarily stores sounds….like someone’s name
• Sketchpad:
Stores and manipulates mental images…like when you can imagine yourself
driving a car to school from home
• Like the central processing chip
of a computer
• The center of mental action AND
the go-between for the other
parts of memory
• It is where the brain sorts out
and encodes information before
adding it to long term memory
• We are conscious of everything
in the working memory
Working
Memory
Working Memory
• Also the area where ‘thinking’
occurs… which is the brain
mulling over images and ideas
taken from the LTM
• AKA = Short Term Memory
Example: A phone number you just
looked up
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Capacity/Duration
• Has limited capacity and a short
duration
• Typically hold information for
about 20 seconds
• “Magic Number Seven” …seven
items of any sort..(letters,
numbers, words, shapes, sounds)
will fill the working memory of
“Put on your thinking cap” most people
• Has the smallest capacity of the three
stages
Biological Basis: Working memory probably holds
information in actively firing nerve circuits…most
likely in the frontal cortex
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory
• I. Chunking
• II. Rehearsal
• Maintenance Rehearsal
• Elaborate Rehearsal
• III. Acoustic Encoding: The Phonological Loop
• IV. Visual and Spatial Encoding.. the sketchpad
Working Memory Aides To Overcome Limited
Capacity and Short Duration
Chunking
Organizing pieces of information into a smaller
number of meaningful units
• Example: A social security number
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Acronyms
Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES
Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie,
Superior
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
PEMDAS
Parentheses, Exponent,
Multiply, Divide,
Add, Subtract
SNAFU
Situation Normal, All F***ed
Up
ROY G. BIV
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green,
Blue, Indigo, Violet
WTF
Williamstown Theater Festival
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Rehearsal
Process in which
information is repeated or
reviewed to keep it from
fading while in working
memory
Spacing Effect
We retain information
better when we rehearse
over time
Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating information to
remember it
Ex: Cramming for a test,
a shopping list in your head
• Not an efficient method of
transferring information
into the LTM
Elaborate Rehearsal
Repeating information AND
connecting it to knowledge
already stored in LTM
• A more efficient method of
transferring information
into the LTM
• Ex: 1-800-EYE-EXAM
Working Memory Aides To Overcome
Limited Capacity and Short Duration
Acoustic Encoding
Encoded memory of a stimulus on the basis of any
sound associated with it
Whrr -- pop -- splash -- cuckoo:
You can hear in your mind the sounds they describe
Examples:
Hearing words and phrases
Repeating notes to yourself while studying.
Working Memory Aides To Overcome
Limited Capacity and Short Duration
• Visual and Spatial Encoding... The Sketchpad
• Encodes visual images and mental representations of objects in space
•
• Example: Holds those images you think of when trying to remember
where you left your lost coat
Levels-of-Processing Theory
Explanation for the fact that the more connections you make with
new information while it is in the working memory to prior knowledge
in the LTM, the more likely you are to remember it.
Also known as…
Elaboration or Elaborative Rehearsal
The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Stores material
organized
according to
meaning, also
called LTM
The Third Stage:
Long-Term Memory
Capacity and Duration:
• Largest capacity and duration
• Capacity is unlimited
• Lasts a lifetime unless damaged/dementia
• Unknown why it has unlimited capacity
• Stores information according to meaning
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Parts of the Brain Associated with Long Term Memory
Amygdala and Hypothalamus
Strengthens memories that have strong emotional
associations…. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Visual Cortex
Generating visual images
Hippocampus
• Deterioration of the hippocampus the cause of Alzheimer’s
Disease
•
Long term memories make a stop here before going into long term
storage
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Third Stage:
Long-Term Memory
Procedural Memory
Division of LTM that
stores memories for
how things are done
Declarative Memory
Division of LTM that
stores explicit
information
(also known as fact memory)
Example: How to tie a
shoe
Requires some conscious
mental effort
Example: The capital of
Alberta
Yes…this was intentional
& Bacon 2007
Copyright © Allyn
Subdivisions of Declarative
Memory
Episodic Memory
Memory that stores
personal events, or
“episodes”
Semantic Memory
Memory that stores
general knowledge,
including meanings of
words and concepts
Please read the following story, and be prepared to have your memory tested for
one of its sentences.
This is an interesting story about the telescope. In Holland, a man
named Lippershey was an eyeglass maker. One day his children were
playing with some lenses. They discovered that things seemed very
close if two lenses were held about a foot apart. Lippershey began
experimenting, and his “spyglass” attracted much attention. He sent
a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. Galileo at once
realized the importance of the discovery and set about to build an
instrument of his own. He used an old organ pipe with one lens
curved out and the other in. On the first clear night he pointed the
glass toward the sky. He was amazed to find the empty dark spaces
filled with brightly gleaming stars! Night after night Galileo climbed
to a high tower sweeping the sky with his telescope. One night he
saw Jupiter, and to his great surprise discovered near it three bright
stars, two to the east and one to the west.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Now decide which one of the following sentences was in the
story
A. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter
about it.
B. A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian
scientist.
C. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter
about it.
D. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian
scientist.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Includes memory
for:
language, facts
general knowledge
Includes memory
for:
events, personal
experiences
Includes memory
for:
motor skills,
operant and
classical
conditioning
Eidetic Memory
• The so-called “photographic” memory
• An "unfounded myth?????"
• Evidence of it is found more often in children
than adults
Eidetic memory as observed in children is typified by the ability of
an individual to study an image for approximately 30 seconds,
and maintain a nearly perfect photographic memory of that
image for a short time once it has been removed
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A4ugfCjqlZ4
The Biological Basis
of Long-Term Memory
• Engram or Memory Trace
Physical change in the brain associated with
memory
Where are memories held????…Probably anywhere
• Long-term Potentiation
(po-TEN-she-a-shun)
The long-lasting improvement in communication
between two neurons that results from stimulating
them simultaneously
The Biological Basis
of Long-Term Memory
Consolidation
The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term
memories
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form
memories for new
information
Retrograde Amnesia –
Inability to remember
information previously
stored in memory
Amnesia
• Watch 50 First Dates trailer
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ErjP5xMTc
8I
Flashbulb Memories
Clear, vivid long term memory of an especially
meaningful and emotional event
Usually accurate for at least the first year after the
event
Information can be lost, but not destroyed or
deleted
• Watch 9/11 Flashbulb Memories on Youtube
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evj6q0eCdd8
Forgetting
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Input
¼ of a second
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
20 seconds
Forever?