Download METHODOLOGY READER EDC FALL 2008

EFFECTIVE STUDYING AND WRITING
EDC
FALL 2008
Instructor: Dr Jennifer Takhar
10 classes
3 hour duration
We will do in-class reading and writing assignments throughout this course.
All students will be required to present a 10 minute in-depth analytical review of
one major news event. Each seminar will open with the students presenting their
reviews.
This review exercise will be based on a written piece of serious journalism and
TV coverage.
Recommended reading:
Collins Gem English-French mini dictionary
LESSON PLANS:
1-Stages of the writing process,
Reading Poetry
2-Article Review
3-Thesis and Purpose statements
4-Types of writing assignments,
Close readings, discourse analysis
5-Grammar and Punctuation,
The 12 verb tenses reviewed
6-Improving your writing style, Application letters, Business letters
7-CLEAR Method using articles from The Guardian
http://socsci.colorado.edu/~parisr/IAFS_1000/critical_reading.htm
How to write a character analysis.
8-Oral presentations
9-Writing Summaries
10-Revision, Grammar, syntax,
Read with a pencil
Read the following poem, “Night of the Scorpion” by Nissim Ezekiel with a pencil in your hand.
Mark it up; write in the margins; react to it; get involved with it. Circle important, or striking, or
repeated words. Draw lines to connect related ideas. Mark difficult or confusing words, lines, and
passages.
Read through the poem, several times if you can, both silently and aloud.
Significant words or phrases have been highlighted in colour. Answer the questions about
these words and phrases.
1. What is the significance of the words 'they said', which appear in the poem on lines 17, 18, 20,
22, and 29?
They are an example of hyperbole in the poem exaggerating the actions of the neighbours.
They are an example of alliteration, which illustrates the frustration that the poet felt about his
neighbours.
They are an example of repetition and through them, the poet conveys that the neighbours are
making too much fuss and the poet does not want to be associated with it.
2. Who is the 'Evil One' referred to on line 10?
The Devil
The scorpion
The mother
3. In which line can you find an example of alliteration and repetition that emphasises the mother's
pain?
Type the line number into the box.
4. Read lines 32-33. What do these lines illustrate?
These lines use repetition to illustrate the increasing annoyance of the poet and emphasise the
long night of suffering for his mother.
These lines use repetition to illustrate the actions of the neighbours and emphasise the feeling of
gratitude the poet had at the time.
These lines are purely descriptive of the event and do not represent anything significant.
5. Which group of lines show how even people who are not superstitious will react to the suffering
of someone they love?
Lines 18-28
Lines 36-40
Lines 47-49
6. In which line can you find an example of a simile that is used to illustrate the poet's irritation
towards the neighbours?
Type the line number into the box.
7. Read lines 2-4. What attitude does the poet have towards the scorpion?
The poet thinks the scorpion is worthless.
The poet is sympathetic towards the scorpion.
The poet expresses love for the scorpion.
8. Read the lines highlighted in green (lines 18-28). Which of the following do you agree with?
This section is an example of the poet talking to us directly making the poem seem more personal.
This section sounds like a song or sonnet that the neighbours recited to ease the mother's pain.
This section sounds like a prayer or incantation. It is asking that the mother's sting will result in
forgiveness for her former life and hope for her next life.
9. Read lines 44-45. What do these lines illustrate?
These lines illustrate that a scorpion's sting only lasts 20 hours.
These lines illustrate that time is the best healer.
These lines illustrate that the neighbours left after 20 hours.
10. What is the purpose of the last three lines of the poem?
The last three lines conclude the story and show that the mother recovered from the sting.
The last three lines provide a contrast to the fuss and panic in the rest of the poem, showing that
throughout her ordeal, the mother was just grateful that she was stung and not one of her children.
The last three lines show the strength of the mother's character and her gratitude to her neighbours
for saving her.
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Examine the basic subject of the poem
Vultures by Chinua Achebe
In the greyness
and drizzle of one despondent
dawn unstirred by harbingers
of sunbreak a vulture
perching high on broken
bone of a dead tree
nestled close to his
mate his smooth
bashed-in head, a pebble
on a stem rooted in
a dump of gross
feathers, inclined affectionately
to hers. Yesterday they picked
the eyes of a swollen
corpse in a water-logged
trench and ate the things in its bowel. Full
gorged they chose their roost
keeping the hollowed remnant
in easy range of cold
telescopic eyes ...
Strange
indeed how love in other
ways so particular
will pick a corner
in that charnel-house
tidy it and coil up there, perhaps
even fall asleep - her face
turned to the wall!
... Thus the Commandant at Belsen
Camp going home for
the day with fumes of
human roast clinging
rebelliously to his hairy
nostrils will stop
at the wayside sweet-shop
and pick up a chocolate
for his tender offspring
waiting at home for Daddy's return ...
Praise bounteous
providence if you will
that grants even an ogre
a tiny glow-worm
tenderness encapsulated
in icy caverns of a cruel
heart or else despair
for in every germ
of that kindred love is
lodged the perpetuity
of evil.

Consider the title of the poem carefully. What does it tell you about the poem's subject, tone,
and genre? What does it promise? (After having read the poem, you will want to come back
to the title in order to consider further its relationship with the poem.)

What is your initial impression of the poem's subject? Try writing out an answer to the
question, "What is this poem about?"--and then return to this question throughout your
analysis. Push yourself to be precise; aim for more than just a vague impression of the poem.
What is the author's attitude toward his or her subject?

What is the poem's basic situation? What is going on in it? Who is talking? To whom?
Under what circumstances? Where? About what? Why? Is a story being told? Is something-tangible or intangible--being described? What specifically can you point to in the poem to
support your answers?

Because a poem is highly compressed, it may help you to try to unfold it by paraphrasing
the poem aloud, moving line by line through it. If the poem is written in sentences, can you
figure out what the subject of each one is? The verb? The object of the verb? What a
modifier refers to? Try to untie any syntactic knots.

Is the poem built on a comparison or analogy? If so, how is the comparison appropriate?
How are the two things alike? How different?

What is the author's attitude toward his subject? Serious? Reverent? Ironic? Satiric?
Ambivalent? Hostile? Humorous? Detached? Witty?

Does the poem appeal to a reader's intellect? Emotions? Reason?
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Consider the context of the poem

Are there any allusions to other literary or historical figures or events? How do these add to
the poem? How are they appropriate?

What do you know about this poet? About the age in which he or she wrote this poem?
About other works by the same author?
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Study the form of the poem

Consider the sound and rhythm of the poem. Is there a metrical pattern? If so, how regular
is it? Does the poet use rhyme? What do the meter and rhyme emphasize? Is there any
alliteration? Assonance? Onomatopoeia? How do these relate to the poem's meaning? What
effect do they create in the poem?

Are there divisions within the poem? Marked by stanzas? By rhyme? By shifts in subject?
By shifts in perspective? How do these parts relate to each other? How are they appropriate
for this poem?

How are the ideas in the poem ordered? Is there a progression of some sort? From simple to
complex? From outer to inner? From past to present? From one place to another? Is there a
climax of any sort?

What are the form and genre of this poem? What should you expect from such a poem?
How does the poet use the form?
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Look at the word choice of the poem

One way to see the action in a poem is to list all its verbs. What do they tell you about the
poem?

Are there difficult or confusing words? Even if you are only the slightest bit unsure about
the meaning of a word, look it up in a good dictionary. If you are reading poetry written
before the twentieth century, learn to use the Oxford English Dictionary, which can tell you
how a word's definition and usage have changed over time. Be sure that you determine how
a word is being used--as a noun, verb, adjective, adverb--so that you can find its appropriate
meaning. Be sure also to consider various possible meanings of a word and be alert to subtle
differences between words. A good poet uses language very carefully; as a good reader you
in turn must be equally sensitive to the implications of word choice.

What mood is evoked in the poem? How is this accomplished? Consider the ways in which
not only the meanings of words but also their sound and the poem's rhythms help to create
its mood.

Is the language in the poem abstract or concrete? How is this appropriate to the poem's
subject?

Are there any consistent patterns of words? For example, are there several references to
flowers, or water, or politics, or religion in the poem? Look for groups of similar words.

Does the poet use figurative language? Are there metaphors in the poem? Similes? Is there
any personification? Consider the appropriateness of such comparisons. Try to see why the
poet chose a particular metaphor as opposed to other possible ones. Is there a pattern of any
sort to the metaphors? Is there any metonymy in the poem? Synechdoche? Hyperbole?
Oxymoron? Paradox? A dictionary of literary terms may be helpful here.
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Finishing Up

Ask, finally, about the poem, "So what?" What does it do? What does it say? What is its
purpose?
How to get started reading a book to review it
What you should do
Choose your book
carefully
How you should do it
Being interested in a book will help you write a strong review, so take
some time to choose a book whose topic and scholarly approach
genuinely interest you.
If you're assigned a book, you'll need to find a way to become
interested in it.
Read actively and
critically
Don't read just to discover the author's main point or to mine some
facts.
Engage with the text, marking important points and underlining
passages as you go along (in books you own, of course!).
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Focus first on summary
and analysis
Before you read


Write down quickly and informally some of the facts and
ideas you already know about the book's topic
Survey the book--including the preface and table of contents-and make some predictions
Here are some questions to ask:




What does the title promise the book will cover or argue?
What does the preface promise about the book?
What does the table of contents tell you about how the book is
organized?
Who's the audience for this book?
As you read
With individual chapters:

Think carefully about the chapter's title and skim paragraphs
to get an overall sense of the chapter.


Then, as you read, test your predictions against the points
made in the chapter.
After you've finished a chapter, take brief notes. Start by
summarizing, in your own words, the major points of the
chapter. Then you might want to take brief notes about
particular passages you might discuss in your review.
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Begin to evaluate
As you take notes about the book, try dividing your page into two
columns. In the left, summarize main points from a chapter. In the
right, record your reactions to and your tentative evaluations of that
chapter.
Here are several ways you can evaluate a book:

If you know other books on this same subject, you can
compare the arguments and quality of the book you're
reviewing with the others, emphasizing what's new and what's
especially valuable in the book you're reviewing.

If you don't know others books on this subject, you can still do
some evaluation. Ask, for example:






How well does the book fulfill the promises the author
makes in the preface and introduction?
How effective is the book's methodology?
How effectively does the book make its arguments?
How persuasive is the evidence?
For its audience, what are the book's strengths?
How clearly is the book written?
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Use the guidelines below to learn the differences between thesis and purpose statements
In the first stages of writing, thesis or purpose statements are usually rough or ill-formed and are
useful primarily as planning tools.
A thesis statement or purpose statement will emerge as you think and write about a topic. The
statement can be restricted or clarified and eventually worked into an introduction.
As you revise your paper, try to phrase your thesis or purpose statement in a precise way so that it
matches the content and organization of your paper.
Thesis statements
A thesis statement is a sentence that makes an assertion about a topic and
predicts how the topic will be developed. It does not simply announce a
topic: it says something about the topic.
Good: X has made a significant impact on the teenage
population due to its . . .
Bad: In this paper, I will discuss X.
A thesis statement makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose,
and direction of the paper. It summarizes the conclusions that the writer
has reached about the topic.
A thesis statement is generally located near the end of the introduction.
Sometimes in a long paper, the thesis will be expressed in several
sentences or an entire paragraph.
A thesis statement is focused and specific enough to be proven within the
boundaries of the paper. Key words (nouns and verbs) should be specific,
accurate, and indicative of the range of research, thrust of the argument or
analysis, and the organization of supporting information.
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Purpose statements
A purpose statement announces the purpose, scope, and direction of the
paper. It tells the reader what to expect in a paper and what the specific
focus will be.
"This paper examines . . .," "The aim of this paper is to . . .," and "The
purpose of this essay is to . . ." are common beginnings.
A purpose statement makes a promise to the reader about the development
of the argument but does not preview the particular conclusions that the
writer has drawn.
A purpose statement usually appears toward the end of the introduction.
The purpose statement may be expressed in several sentences or even an
entire paragraph.
A purpose statement is specific enough to satisfy the requirements of the
assignment. Purpose statements are common in research papers in some
academic disciplines, while in other disciplines they are considered too
blunt or direct. If you are unsure about using a purpose statement, ask your
instructor.
This paper will examine the ecological destruction of the Sahel
preceding the drought and the causes of this disintegration of
the land. The focus will be on the economic, political, and
social relationships which brought about the environmental
problems in the Sahel.
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Sample purpose and
thesis statements
The following example combines a purpose statement and a thesis
statement (bold).
The goal of this paper is to examine the effects of Chile's
agrarian reform on the lives of rural peasants. The nature of the
topic dictates the use of both a chronological and a
comparative analysis of peasant lives at various points during
the reform period. . . The Chilean reform example provides
evidence that land distribution is an essential component of
both the improvement of peasant conditions and the
development of a democratic society. More extensive and
enduring reforms would likely have allowed Chile the
opportunity to further expand these horizons.
What is a thesis statement?
A thesis statement . . .

Makes an argumentative assertion about a topic; it states the conclusions that you have
reached about your topic.

Makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of your paper.

Is focused and specific enough to be "proven" within the boundaries of your paper.

Is generally located near the end of the introduction; sometimes, in a long paper, the thesis will be
expressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph.

Identifies the relationships between the pieces of evidence that you are using to support your
argument.
Identify a topic
Your topic is the subject about which you will write. Your assignment may suggest several ways of
looking at a topic; or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your
paper.




Consider what your assignment asks you to do
Inform yourself about your topic
Focus on one aspect of your topic
Ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts
Consult the table below for suggestions on how to generate a topic from assignments.
Sample assignment
Identified topic
Reason
Analyze Spain's neutrality in World War
II
Franco's role in the diplomatic
relationships between the Allies
and the Axis
This topic avoids generalities such as
"Spain" and "World War II,"
addressing instead on Franco's role (a
specific aspect of "Spain") and the
diplomatic relations between the
Allies and Axis (a specific aspect of
World War II).
Analyze one of Homer's epic similes in
the Iliad.
The relationship between the
portrayal of warfare and the epic
simile about Simoisius at 4.54764.
This topic focuses on a single simile
and relates it to a single aspect of the
Iliad (warfare being a major theme in
that work).
Derive main point from topic
Once you have a topic, you will have to decide what the main point of your paper will be. This
point, the "controlling idea," becomes the core of your argument (thesis statement) and it is the
unifying idea to which you will relate all your sub-theses. You can then turn this "controlling idea"
into a purpose statement about what you intend to do in your paper.


Look for patterns in your evidence
Compose a purpose statement
Consult the table below for suggestions on how to look for patterns in your evidence and construct a
purpose statement.
Topic
Franco's role in the
diplomatic
relationships
between the Allies
and the Axis
Evidence


Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis
Franco turned to the Allies when he couldn't
get some concessions that he wanted from
the Axis
Purpose statement
This paper will analyze Franco's
diplomacy during World War II to
see how it contributed to Spain's
neutrality.
Possible conclusion:
Spain's neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely
personal reason: Franco's desire to preserve his own
(and Spain's) power.
The relationship
between the
portrayal of warfare
and the epic simile
about Simoisius at
4.547-64.


The simile compares Simoisius to a tree,
which is a peaceful, natural image.
The tree in the simile is chopped down to
make wheels for a chariot, which is an object
used in warfare.
Possible conclusion:
At first, the simile seems to take the reader away
from the world of warfare, but we end up back in that
world by the end.
Compose a draft thesis statement
This paper will analyze the way the
simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64
moves in and out of the world of
warfare.
If you are writing a paper that will have an argumentative thesis and are having trouble getting
started, the techniques in the table below may help you develop a temporary or "working" thesis
statement.
Technique
1. Purpose statement
Description
Begin with a purpose
statement that you will later
turn into a thesis statement.
Example
Assignment: Discuss the history of the Reform Party and
explain its influence on the 1990 presidential and
Congressional election.
Purpose Statement: This paper briefly sketches the history
of the grassroots, conservative, Perot-led Reform Party and
analyzes how it influenced the economic and social
ideologies of the two mainstream parties.
If your assignment asks a
specific question(s), turn the
question(s) into an assertion
and give reasons why it is
true or reasons for your
opinion.
Assignment: What do Aylmer and Rappaccini have to be
proud of? Why aren't they satisfied with these things? How
does pride, as demonstrated in "The Birthmark" and
"Rappaccini's Daughter," lead to unexpected problems?
3. Main idea
Write a sentence that
summarizes the main idea of
the essay you plan to write.
Main idea: The reason some toys succeed in the market is
that they appeal to the consumers' sense of the ridiculous
and their basic desire to laugh at themselves.
4. List ideas
Make a list of the ideas that
you want to include;
consider the ideas and try to
group them.
A. nature = peaceful
2. Question-toAssertion
Beginning thesis statement: Alymer and Rappaccinni are
proud of their great knowledge; however, they are also very
greedy and are driven to use their knowledge to alter some
aspect of nature as a test of their ability. Evil results when
they try to "play God."
B. war matériel = violent (competes with A?)
C. need for time and space to mourn the dead
D. war is inescapable (competes with C?)
5. Formula
Use a formula to arrive at a
working thesis statement
(you will revise this later).
A. Although most readers of _______ have argued that
_______, closer examination shows that _______.
B. _______ uses _______ and _____ to prove that
________.
C. Phenomenon X is a result of the combination of
__________, __________, and _________.
Refine and polish the thesis statement
To get to your final thesis, you'll need to refine your draft thesis so that it's specific and arguable.

Ask if your draft thesis addresses the assignment
Question each part of your draft thesis
Clarify vague phrases and assertions
Investigate alternatives to your draft thesis



Consult the table below for suggestions on how to refine your draft thesis statement.
Sample Assignment:
Choose an activity and define it as a symbol of American culture. Your essay should
cause the reader to think critically about the society which produces and enjoys that
activity.
Refining
Steps
Thesis-in-transition
Explanation
1. Ask
The phenomenon of drive-in facilities is an
interesting symbol of American culture, and
these facilities demonstrate significant
characteristics of our society.
This statement does not fulfill the assignment
because it does not require the reader to think
critically about society.
2. Question
Drive-ins are an interesting symbol of
American culture because they represent
Americans' significant creativity and business
ingenuity.
This statement is more precise in that it identifies
two American characteristics that drive-ins appear to
symbolize: creativity and ingenuity. But this
assertion also seems to be one that few would argue
with.
3. Clarify
Among the types of drive-in facilities familiar
during the twentieth century, drive-in movie
theaters best represent American creativity,
not merely because they were the forerunner
of later drive-ins and drive-throughs, but
because of their impact on our culture: they
changed our relationship to the automobile,
changed the way people experienced movies,
and changed movie-going into a family
activity.
This statement introduces a new idea, and it is the
first statement that is arguable to some extent. The
new information is that drive-in movies were
forerunners of later developments and that they had
an impact on our culture.
4a.
Investigate
While drive-in facilities such as those at fastfood establishments, banks, pharmacies, and
dry cleaners symbolize America's economic
ingenuity, they also have affected our
personal standards.
Notice that this sentence is different in structure
from the one you started with ("Drive-ins represent
Americans' creativity and business ingenuity"). The
"factual" information in the earlier statement has
been incorporated into a dependent clause ("While
drive-ins . . . ingenuity"). The contestable part of
your idea then appears in the independent clause
("they also have affected our personal standards").
In other words, you are no longer focusing on a
claim that most people would agree with; instead
you are using the obvious as a point of departure for
an idea you will need to "prove."
4b.
While drive-in facilities such as those at fastfood restaurants, banks, pharmacies, and dry
cleaners symbolize (1) Americans' business
ingenuity, they also have contributed (2) to an
increasing homogenization of our culture, (3)
This statement is now specific and fulfills all parts
of the assignment. This version, like any good
thesis, is not self-evident; its points, 1-4, will have
to be proven with evidence in the body of the paper.
The numbers in this statement indicate the order in
a willingness to depersonalize relationships
with others, and (4) a tendency to sacrifice
quality for convenience.
which the points will be presented. Depending on
the length of the paper, there could be one paragraph
for each numbered item or there could be blocks of
paragraph for even pages for each one.
Complete the final thesis statement
The Bottom Line
As you move through the process of crafting a thesis, you'll need to remember four things:
1) Context matters! Think about your course materials and lectures. Try to relate your thesis
to the ideas your instructor is discussing.
2) As you go through the process described in this section, always keep your assignment in
mind. You will be more successful when your thesis (and paper) responds to the assignment
than if it argues a semi-related idea.
3) Your thesis statement should be precise, focused, and contestable; it should predict the
sub-theses or blocks of information that you will use to prove your argument.
4) Make sure that you keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Change your thesis as
your paper evolves, because you do not want your thesis to promise more than your paper
actually delivers.
In the beginning, the thesis statement was a tool to help you sharpen your focus, limit material and
establish the paper's purpose. When your paper is finished, however, the thesis statement becomes a
tool for your reader. It tells the reader what you have learned about your topic and what evidence
led you to your conclusion. It keeps the reader on track--well able to understand and appreciate your
argument.
Writing a research paper:
Discovering, Narrowing, and Focusing a Researchable Topic

Try to find a topic that truly interests you

Try writing your way to a topic

Talk with your course instructor and classmates about your topic

Pose your topic as a question to be answered or a problem to be solved
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Finding, Selecting, and Reading Sources
You will need to look at the following types of sources:

card catalog, periodical indexes, bibliographies, suggestions from your instructor

primary vs. secondary sources

journals, books, other documents
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Grouping, Sequencing, and Documenting Information
The following systems will help keep you organized:

a system for noting sources on bibliography cards

a system for organizing material according to its relative importance

a system for taking notes
Writing an Outline and a Prospectus for Yourself Consider the following questions:

What is the topic?

Why is it significant?

What background material is relevant?

What is my thesis or purpose statement?

What organizational plan will best support my purpose?
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Writing the Introduction
In the introduction you will need to do the following things:

present relevant background or contextual material

define terms or concepts when necessary

explain the focus of the paper and your specific purpose

reveal your plan of organization
Writing the Body

Use your outline and prospectus as flexible guides

Build your essay around points you want to make (i.e., don't let your sources organize your
paper)

Integrate your sources into your discussion

Summarize, analyze, explain, and evaluate published work rather than merely reporting it

Move up and down the "ladder of abstraction" from generalization to varying levels of detail
back to generalization
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Writing the Conclusion

If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument
for your reader.

If prior to your conclusion you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if
you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to add your points up, to explain
their significance.

Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context
provided by the introduction.

Perhaps suggest what about this topic needs further research.
Revising the Final Draft

Check overall organization: logical flow of introduction, coherence and depth of
discussion in body, effectiveness of conclusion.

Paragraph level concerns: topic sentences, sequence of ideas within paragraphs, use of
details to support generalizations, summary sentences where necessary, use of transitions
within and between paragraphs.

Sentence level concerns: sentence structure, word choices, punctuation, spelling.

Documentation: consistent use of one system, citation of all material not considered
common knowledge, appropriate use of endnotes or footnotes, accuracy of list of works
cited.
QUOTING AND PARAPHRASING SOURCES
See uw madison guide “Acknowledging Sources”
Responding to a Draft
Before you read and while you read the paper

Find out what the writer is intending to do in the paper (purpose) and what the intended
audience is.

Find out what the writer wants from a reader at this stage.

Read (or listen) to the entire draft before commenting.
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What to include in your critique

Praise what works well in the draft; point to specific passages.

Comment on large issues first (Does the draft respond to the assignment? Are important and
interesting ideas presented? Is the main point clear and interesting? Is there a clear focus? Is
the draft effectively organized? Is the sequence of points logical? Are ideas adequately
developed? If appropriate, is the draft convincing in its argument? Is evidence used
properly?). Go on to smaller issues later (awkward or confusing sentences, style, grammar,
word choice, proofreading).

Time is limited (for your response and for the author's revision), so concentrate on the most
important ways the draft could be improved.

Comment on whether the introduction clearly announces the topic and suggests the approach
that will be taken; on whether ideas are clear and understandable.

Be specific in your response (explain where you get stuck, what you don't understand) and
in your suggestions for revision. And as much as you can, explain why you're making
particular suggestions.

Try describing what you see (or hear) in the paper--what you see as the main point, what you
see as the organizational pattern.

Identify what's missing, what needs to be explained more fully. Also identify what can be
cut.
top
How to criticize appropriately

Be honest (but polite and constructive) in your response

Don't argue with the author or with other respondents.
COMMON ERRORS
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Make sure each word group you have punctuated as a sentence contains a grammatically complete
and independent thought that can stand alone as an acceptable sentence.
Sentence Fragment
How to fix it
Tests of the Shroud of Turin have produced some
curious findings. For example, the pollen of fortyeight plants native to Europe and the Middle East.
Tests of the Shroud of Turin have produced some
curious findings. For example, the cloth contains
the pollen of forty-eight plants native to Europe
and the Middle East.
[2nd sentence = fragment]
Scientists report no human deaths due to
excessive caffeine consumption. Although caffeine
does cause convulsions and death in certain
animals.
Scientists report no human deaths due to
excessive caffeine consumption, although caffeine
does cause convulsions and death in certain
animals.
[2nd sentence = fragment]
Sentence sprawl
Too many equally weighted phrases and clauses produce tiresome sentences.
Sentence sprawl
How to fix it
The hearing was planned for Monday, December 2, but not all of the witnesses could be available, so it was
rescheduled for the following Friday, and then all the witnesses could attend.
[There are no grammatical errors here, but the sprawling sentence does not communicate clearly and
concisely.]
The hearing, which had been planned for Monday, December 2, was rescheduled for the following Friday so that all
witnesses would be able to attend.
Faulty parallelism
Be sure you use grammatically equal sentence elements to express two or more
matching ideas or items in a series.
Faulty parallelism
How to fix it
The candidate's goals include winning the election, a national health program, and the educational system.
The candidate's goals include winning the election, enacting a national health program, and improving the educational
system.
Some critics are not so much opposed to capital punishment as postponing it for so long.
Some critics are not so much opposed to capital punishment as they are to postponing it for so long.
Unclear pronoun reference
All pronouns must clearly refer to definite referents [nouns].
Use it, they, this, that, these, those, and which carefully to prevent confusion.
Unclear pronoun reference
How to fix it
Einstein was a brilliant mathematician. This is how he was able to explain the universe.
Einstein, who was a brilliant mathematician, used his ability with numbers to explain the universe.
Because Senator Martin is less interested in the environment than in economic development, he sometimes neglects it.
Because of his interest in economic development, Senator Martin sometimes neglects the environment.
Incorrect pronoun case
Determine whether the pronoun is being used as a subject, or an object, or a
possessive in the sentence, and select the pronoun form to match.
Incorrect pronoun case
How to fix it
Castro's communist principles inevitably led to an ideological conflict between he and President Kennedy.
Castro's communist principles inevitably led to an ideological conflict between him and President Kennedy.
Because strict constructionists recommend fidelity to the Constitution as written, no one objects more than them to
judicial reinterpretation.
Because strict constructionists recommend fidelity to the Constitution as written, no one objects more than they [do] to
judicial reinterpretation.
Omitted commas
Use commas to signal nonrestrictive or nonessential material, to prevent
confusion, and to indicate relationships among ideas and sentence parts.
Omitted commas
How to fix them
When it comes to eating people differ in their tastes.
When it comes to eating, people differ in their tastes.
The Huns who were Mongolian invaded Gaul in 451.
The Huns, who were Mongolian, invaded Gaul in 451.
["Who were Mongolian" adds information but does not change the core meaning of the sentence
because Huns were a Mongolian people; this material is therefore nonrestrictive or nonessential.]
Comma splices
Do not link two independent clauses with a comma (unless you also use a
coordinating conjunction: and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet).
Instead use a period or semicolon, or rewrite the sentence.
Comma splice
How to fix it
In 1952 Japan's gross national product was one third that of France, by the late 1970s it was larger than the GNPs of
France and Britain combined.
In 1952 Japan's gross national product was one third that of France. By the late 1970s it was larger than the GNPs of
France and Britain combined.
Diseased coronary arteries are often surgically bypassed, however half of all bypass grafts fail within ten years.
Diseased coronary arteries are often surgically bypassed; however, half of all bypass grafts fail within ten years.
Apostrophe errors
Apostrophes indicate possession for nouns ("Jim's hat," "several years' work")
but not for personal pronouns (its, your, their, and whose).
Apostrophes also indicate omissions in contractions ("it's" = "it is").
In general, they are not used to indicate plurals.
Apostrophe error
How to fix it
In the current conflict its uncertain who's borders their contesting.
In the current conflict it is [it's] uncertain whose borders they are [they're] contesting.
The Aztecs ritual's of renewal increased in frequency over the course of time.
The Aztecs' rituals of renewal increased in frequency over the course of time.
Words easily confused
"Effect" is most often a noun (the effect), and "affect" is almost always a verb.
Other pairs commonly confused: "lead"/"led" and "accept"/"except."
Check a glossary of usage to find the right choice.
Confused word
How to fix it
The recession had a negative affect on sales.
The recession had a negative effect on sales.
(or) The recession affected sales negatively.
The laboratory instructor chose not to offer detailed advise.
The laboratory instructor chose not to offer detailed advice.
Misspellings
Spelling errors are usually perceived as a reflection of the writer's careless attitude toward the whole
project.
Don't allow your hard work to be marred in this way!
In addition to comprehensive dictionaries, you may want to use electronic spell checks, spelling
dictionaries, and lists of frequently misspelled words found in handbooks.
HOW TO PROOFREAD
Before You Proofread

Be sure you've revised the larger aspects of your text. Don't make corrections at the
sentence and word level if you still need to work on the focus, organization, and
development of the whole paper, of sections, or of paragraphs.

Set your text aside for a while (15 minutes, a day, a week) between writing and
proofing. Some distance from the text will help you see mistakes more easily.

Eliminate unnecessary words before looking for mistakes. See the Writing Center
handout How to Write Clear, Concise, Direct Sentences.

Know what to look for. From the comments of your professors or a Writing Center
instructor on past papers, make a list of mistakes you need to watch for.
top
When You Proofread

Work from a printout, not the computer screen. (But see below for computer functions
that can help you find some kinds of mistakes.)

Read out loud. This is especially helpful for spotting run-on sentences, but you'll also hear
other problems that you may not see when reading silently.

Use a blank sheet of paper to cover up the lines below the one you're reading. This
technique keeps you from skipping ahead of possible mistakes.

Use the search function of the computer to find mistakes you're likely to make. Search
for "it," for instance, if you confuse "its" and "it's;" for "-ing" if dangling modifiers are a
problem; for opening parentheses or quote marks if you tend to leave out the closing ones.

If you tend to make many mistakes, check separately for each kind of error, moving
from the most to the least important, and following whatever technique works best for
you to identify that kind of mistake. For instance, read through once (backwards, sentence
by sentence) to check for fragments; read through again (forward) to be sure subjects and
verbs agree, and again (perhaps using a computer search for "this," "it," and "they") to trace
pronouns to antecedents.

End with a spelling check, using a computer spelling checker or reading backwards
word by word. But remember that a spelling checker won't catch mistakes with homonyms
(e.g., "they're," "their," "there") or certain typos (like "he" for "the").
top
When you want to learn more
Take a class
The Writing Center offers many classes, including a number of grammar classes.
Use a handbook
A number of handbooks are available to consult in the Writing Center, and each Writing Center
computer has an online handbook.
When to check for subject-verb agreement
Watch subject-verb
agreement:
When the subject follows
the verb
When the expletive "it" is
the subject
Reason
Examples
When the subject follows the
verb (especially in sentences
beginning with the expletives
"there is" or "there are"), special
care is needed to determine the
subject and to make certain that
the verb agrees with it.
On the wall were several posters.
The expletive "it" is always
followed by a singular verb.
It is my car which stalls.
There are many possible
candidates.
There is only one good
candidate.
It is their cars which stall.
When words like "each"
are the subject
When used as subjects, words
such as







each, either, neither
another
anyone, anybody,
anything
someone, somebody,
something
one, everyone
everybody, everything
no one, nobody, nothing
take singular verbs.
Each takes her turn at rowing.
Neither likes the friends of the
other.
Everyone in the fraternity has his
own set of prejudices.
Each of the rowers takes her turn
at rowing.
Every one of the fraternity
members has his own set of
prejudices.
Do not be confused by
prepositional phrases which
come between a subject and its
verb. They do not change the
number of the subject.
When words like "none"
are the subject
Other words such as


none, any, all
more, most, some
may take either singular or plural
verbs, depending on the context.
top
Some of the dollar was spent.
Some of the dollars were spent.
[Note: here the prepositional
phrase does affect the subject. It
tells you whether you are talking
about a part of one thing
(singular) or about a number of
things (plural).]
When the subjects are
joined by "and"
When singular subjects
are joined by words like
"or"
Subjects joined by "and" take
plural verbs.
Both Tom and Jane have English
167 papers due on Tuesday.
Be aware: phrases such as "in
addition to," "as well as," and
"along with" do not mean the
same thing as "and." When
inserted between the subject and
the verb, these phrases do not
change the number of the
subject.
Tom, as well as Jane, has an
English 207 paper due Tuesday.
Singular subjects joined by "or,"
"nor," "either . . . or," or "neither.
. . nor" take a singular verb.
Either the man or his wife knows
the truth of the matter.
Neither money nor power was
important any longer.
When one subject is
singular and one plural
If one subject is singular and one
is plural, the verb agrees with the
nearer subject.
Neither the television nor the
radios work.
Neither the radios nor the
television works.
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When a linking verb is
used
When a collective noun is
used
A linking verb ("is," "are,"
"was," "were," "seem" and
others) agrees with its subject,
not its complement.
Joe's favorite dessert is blueberry
muffins.
When regarded as a unit,
collective nouns, as well as noun
phrases denoting quantity, take
singular verbs.
The whole family is active.
Blueberry muffins are Joe's
favorite dessert.
(Family is a collective noun
regarded as a unit.)
The family have met their
various obligations.
(The individuals of the family
are regarded separately.)
A thousand bushels is a good
yield.
(a quantity or unit)
A thousand bushels were crated.
(individual bushels)
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When a relative pronoun
is used as a subject of an
adjective clause
A relative pronoun ("who,"
"which," or "that") used as a
subject of an adjective clause
takes either a singular or plural
verb in order to agree with its
antecedent.
A vegetable that contains DDT
can be harmful.
(Adjective clause modifying the
singular noun "vegetable.")
Vegetables that contain DDT can
be harmful.
(Adjective clause modifying the
plural noun "vegetables.")
Mary is one of the students who
have done honor to the college.
(Adjective clause modifies the
plural noun "students."
"Students" is the antecedent of
"who."
In the above sentence Mary is
just one of the students. So at
least two students have done
honor to the college.
Compare that to:
Mary is the only one of our
students who has achieved
national recognition.
In this case, "one," not
"students," is the antecedent of
"who."
Compare to the sentence above:
Of all our students, Mary is the
only one who has achieved
national recognition.
Using Conjunctive Adverbs
Use conjunctive adverbs (or sentence adverbs) to:



Conjunctive adverbs
How to punctuate
conjunctive adverbs
Guideline
Examples
When a conjunctive adverb
connects two independent clauses
in one sentence, it is preceded by a
semicolon and followed by a
comma.
Tuition increases, say officials, are
driven by the universities' costs;
consequently, tuition income
typically covers less than 50% of
college budgets.
If a conjunctive adverb is used in
any other position in a sentence, it
is set off by commas.
Nonetheless, some colleges are
making efforts to trim budgets and
indicate a connection between two
independent clauses in one sentence
link the ideas in two or more sentences
show relationships between ideas within
an independent clause.
Here are some examples of conjunctive adverbs:








also
however
otherwise
consequently
indeed
similarly
finally
likewise








then
furthermore
moreover
therefore
hence
nevertheless
thus
nonetheless
pass along the savings.
Secretary Bennett, however,
maintains that more federal aid
would only encourage universities
to count on the government to meet
any increases they might impose.
Using Coordinating Conjunctions
Use coordinating conjunctions to indicate that
the elements they join are equal in importance
and in structure.
Coordinating conjunctions
How to punctuate
coordinating conjunctions
Guideline
Example
When a coordinating conjunction
joins two independent clauses, a
comma is used before the
coordinating conjunction (unless the
two independent clauses are very
short).
Conjunctions that are not followed
by non-essential elements should
never be followed by commas.
Perhaps no budget is without some
fat, but university officials argue that
their unique function requires special
standards of evaluation.
When either independent clause in a
compound sentence contains a
Coordinating conjunctions join grammatically
similar elements (two nouns, two verbs, two
modifiers, two independent clauses).




and
or
nor
so



but
for
yet
comma to set off introductory or nonessential elements, a reader may be
confused by a comma before a
coordinating conjunction.
In this case, a semicolon may replace
the comma.
The figures at elite universities,
particularly, are enough to cause
sticker shock; yet the current
increases at many schools are the
lowest in a decade.
When NOT to punctuate
coordinating conjunctions
Guideline
Examples
If a sentence begins with a
coordinating conjunction, it is not
followed by a comma.
Yet the typical tenured professor's
salary of $43,500 still represents 10%
less buying power than the
equivalent salary in 1970.
Commas are not used between two
verbs, two subjects, two
complements, or two objects joined
by a coordinating conjunction.
That confuses most analogies
between universities and profitmaking enterprises. [compound
object of preposition]
Endowments and gifts make up the
rest. [compound subject]
Georgetown, for example, has
eliminated one-third of its graduate
programs in the past five years and
recently decided to close its dental
school. [compound verb]
Semicolons help you connect closely related ideas when a style mark stronger than a comma is needed.
By using semicolons effectively, you can make your writing sound more sophisticated.
When to Use a Semicolon
Use a Semicolon to . . .
Reason
Example
Link two independent clauses
To connect closely related
ideas
Some people write with a word
processor; others write with a
pen or pencil.
Link clauses connected by
conjunctive adverbs or
transitional phrases
To connect closely related
ideas
But however they choose to
write, people are allowed to
make their own decisions; as a
result, many people swear by
their writing methods.
Link lists where the items
contain commas
To avoid confusion between
list items
There are basically two ways to
write: with a pen or pencil,
which is inexpensive and easily
accessible; or by computer and
printer, which is more
expensive but quick and neat.
Link lengthy clauses or clauses
with commas
To avoid confusion between
clauses
Some people write with a word
processor, typewriter, or a
computer; but others, for
different reasons, choose to
write with a pen or pencil.
Rules for Using Semicolons
Rule
A semicolon is most commonly used to link (in a
single sentence) two independent clauses that are
closely related in thought.
Example
Some people write with a word processor;
others write with a pen or pencil.
When a semicolon is used to join two or more
ideas (parts) in a sentence, those ideas are then
given equal position or rank.
Use a semicolon between two independent clauses
that are connected by conjunctive adverbs or
transitional phrases.
But however they choose to write, people are
allowed to make their own decisions; as a
result, many people swear by their writing
methods.
Use a semicolon between items in a list or series if
any of the items contain commas.
There are basically two ways to write: with a
pen or pencil, which is inexpensive and easily
accessible; or by computer and printer, which
is more expensive but quick and neat.
Use a semicolon between independent clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction if the clauses
are already punctuated with commas or if the
clauses are lengthy.
Some people write with a word processor,
typewriter, or a computer; but others, for
different reasons, choose to write with a pen or
pencil.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Avoid using a comma when a semicolon is needed:
Incorrect Comma Use
Why It's Wrong
Correct Semicolon Use
The cow is brown, it is also
old.
Both parts of the sentence are
independent clauses, and
commas should not be used to
connect independent clauses if
there is no coordinating
conjunction. This mistake is
known as a comma splice.
The cow is brown; it is also
old.
I like cows, however, I hate the
way they smell.
The conjunctive adverb
however signals a connection
between two independent
clauses, and commas should not
be used to connect independent
clauses if there is no
coordinating conjunction.
I like cows; however, I hate
the way they smell
I like cows: they give us milk,
which tastes good, they give us
beef, which also tastes good,
and they give us leather, which
is used for shoes and coats.
It's unclear what the three list
items are, since the items are
separated by commas.
I like cows: they give us milk,
which tastes good; they give
us beef, which also tastes
good; and they give us leather,
which is used for shoes and
coats.
Cows, though their bovine
majesty has been on the wane
in recent millenia, are still one
of the great species of this
planet, domesticated, yet
proud, they ruminate silently
as we humans pass
tumultuously by.
It's unclear where the first
independent clause ends and the
second independent clause
begins.
Cows, though their bovine
majesty has been on the wane
in recent millenia, are still one
of the great species of this
planet; domesticated, yet
proud, they ruminate silently
as we humans pass
tumultuously by.
Avoid using a semicolon when a comma is needed:
Incorrect Semicolon Use
Why It's Wrong
Correct Comma Use
The cow is brown; but not old.
The coordinating
conjunction but doesn't
require a semicolon, since
the second part of the
sentence isn't an
independent clause.
The cow is brown, but not old.
Because cows smell; they offend
me.
The first part is not an
independent clause, so no
semicolon is required.
Because cows smell, they
offend me.
Using commas to punctuate restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
Use commas to set off non-restrictive modifiers.
Do not use commas to set off restrictive modifiers.
Non-restrictive
vs. restrictive
modifiers
A non-restrictive modifier adds information that is not essential to our
understanding of the sentence; if we remove it from the sentence, the basic
meaning of the sentence does not change.
A restrictive modifier identifies, or limits the reference of, the noun it modifies.
The table below illustrates these definitions.
Type of modifier
Example
Explanation
Non-restrictive
The statue of his mother by Joseph Smith, dated 1894, sold for over a million dollars.
The date of Joseph Smith's statue can be removed from the sentence without altering its
meaning:
The statue of his mother by Joseph Smith sold for over a million dollars.
Restrictive
The painting dated 1894 is a forgery; the one dated 1892 is genuine.
The phrases "dated 1894" and "dated 1892" cannot be detached from the sentence without
making the meaning unclear:
The painting [which one?] is a forgery; the one [which one?] is genuine.
Further
examples
Note the distinction and the different punctuation in the following pairs of
sentences:
Non-restrictive
Restrictive
William Carlos Williams, the poet, was also a farmer.
The poet William Carlos Williams was also a farmer.
John, who has been drinking, should not drive.
People who have been drinking should not drive.
Many Americans travel to Mexico, where Laetrile is legal and readily available.
Many Americans travel to countries where Laetrile is legal and readily available.
In spring, when the water is high, the lake surges over the rocks.
At times when the water is high the lake surges over the rocks.
The waiters, dressed in their white jackets, are already arranging the chairs on the sidewalk.
The waiters dressed in white jackets serve in the main dining room; those in red serve in the
coffee shop.
Dashes, when used sparingly and correctly, can be used to make your writing sound more sophisticated.
When to use dashes
Use dashes to . . .
Indicate sudden changes in tone or
thought within a sentence
Reason
To emphasize the contradiction
between ideas
Example
There is an illness in many foreign
services--the people in them are only
good at following instructions.*
I am under the impression that she has
no instructions at all--and doesn't need
any.*
The exuberant--I should say lunatic-quality of his ravings electrified the
crowd. *
Set off some sentence elements
To insert parenthetical commentary
while emphasizing their importance
(Parentheses tend to diminish the
importance of what's enclosed in
them)
Over a candlelit dinner last month at
Spaso House, the ambassadorial
residence in Moscow, Robert Strauss
and his wife Helen listened as two
Senators--Republican Robert C. Smith
of New Hampshire and Democrat
John Kerry of Massachusetts--agreed
that the way to bring American
audiences "out of their chairs" these
days was simply to say, in Smith's
words, "We won the cold war, and
we're not going to send one dime in
aid to Russia."*
Strauss favors--as does, sotto voce, the
Administration--early admission of
Russia to the International Monetary
Fund.*
Create emphasis
To connect ideas strongly to each
other
To feed, clothe, and find shelter for the
needy--these are real achievements.
Improving your writing style
See uw madison reader, PDF document
CLEAR READING METHOD
Critical reading is one aspect of critical thinking, which is the ability to
evaluate arguments and reach your own well-reasoned conclusions. In fact,
critical thinking may be the single most important skill that you can acquire in
your undergraduate education – regardless of your major. In both your
professional and your personal life, you will likely be called upon to separate
strong from weak arguments, to develop your own opinions based on evidence and
careful reasoning, and to sort through and make sense of a confusing mass of
information. Critical thinking and reading skills will allow you to do this.
How to read Critically
Critical reading means thinking carefully about an author’s
claims, rather than accepting these claims at face value.
It requires several skills:
identifying the claims or arguments of a text;
evaluating the logic of these arguments;
determining whether the author has presented sufficient
and valid evidence in support of these arguments; and
considering alternative evidence and arguments that
might challenge the author’s claims.
Why bother? Because if you don’t read critically, you may miss the main
arguments of the text, or – worse – your opinions may be influenced by
bogus arguments.
So, how can you learn to read critically?
It’s not hard, and it gets easier with practice.
to do:
Here’s what
When you begin each of the readings for this course, keep the
following questions in mind, which you can remember by thinking
about the word C-L-E-A-R:
1.
CLAIMS:
What are the main claims or arguments
in the text?
2.
LOGIC:
What is the author’s main point?
How does the author reach these
conclusions?
What are the steps in the author’s
reasoning or logic? Is this logic sound?
3.
EVIDENCE:
What evidence does the author present
to support the argument(s)?
enough evidence?
Does the author offer
Is this evidence convincing?
Can
you think of any counter-evidence that would
challenge the author’s claims?
4.
ASSUMPTIONS: Does the author rely on hidden
assumptions?
5.
If so, are these assumptions correct?
ALTERNATIVE ArGUMENTS:
Can you think of alternative
arguments that the author has not considered?
That’s it. Once you get into the habit of critical reading, you will
automatically ask yourself these questions – and you’ll be better off
for it.
APPLY THE CLEAR MODEL TO THE FOLLOWING TWO ARTICLES
WRITE 200 WORDS IN EACH ANALYSIS
Les misérables: France's unhappy position
The new president will have to deal with the effects of years of rigidity



Ashley Seager
The Guardian,
Monday May 7 2007
When the dust settles on the Ségo v Sarko presidential election campaign, the harsh reality of the
economic challenges that face the victor will still be there like a hangover after a party.
France's poor labour market performance is well known and has been a problem for decades. But
until recently the economy was propped up by low interest rates and robust consumer spending.
Now, though, it has flagged, especially when the sluggish growth of the French economy is
contrasted with the runaway success of Germany. France grew more slowly than Germany last year
for the first time in a decade and is now one of the poorest performing major economies in the
eurozone.
Germany is as interesting in its success as France is in its lack of it. This is a worthwhile
comparison because it gets away from the stale "Anglo-Saxon" v "European social model" debate.
Germany has held down wages for six years. Real wages have barely risen at all, pushing the share
of workers' pay as a proportion of national income to its lowest for four decades, which is surprising
for a country with a strong social model. Germany has regained international competitiveness hence the success of its exporters. Those in work are reaping the benefits of years of belt-tightening
and unemployment is falling rapidly, though from a high level.
In France, wages have continued to rise, helping support consumer spending but gradually leading
to a loss of competitiveness that is now becoming painfully apparent. "The French economy did
well for many years and outperformed Germany. But now it has become the real laggard in Europe
and is now growing as slowly as Italy," says Jonathan Loynes, chief European economist at Capital
Economics.
Disappointing
"Their problem has become a complete lack of competitiveness in overseas markets because of
things like labour market rigidities and stronger wage growth than in Germany. France is now the
sick man of Europe."
France's poor growth is particularly disappointing when the world economy is in its longest and
fastest period of expansion for at least three decades.
So what has Nicolas Sarkozy, who looks to be the likely victor, promised to do? He says France is
craving a sense of direction and leadership amid recent fears of decline. He has promised a
"reformist crash programme" as part of which he hopes to get agreement from the unions before the
autumn on a unified, more flexible work contract, on minimum service standards during strikes in
public services, and renegotiation of workers' rights between unions and employers.
He would also in effect do away with the 35-hour working week by imposing a 25% premium on
overtime hours worked, paid for by scrapping any tax and national insurance on them.
The unified, more flexible work contract sounds harmless enough but it goes to the heart of the
problems in the French labour market. French workers are either "insiders" on permanent contracts
and in effect have jobs for life with short working hours, or they are "outsiders", either jobless or
working on precarious short-term contracts.
France looks great to the millions of tourists who flock there each year, but to a young person trying
to find a job, especially if he or she is an immigrant from one of the banlieues (suburbs), it can be a
very difficult place.
Contrary to the idea held by many people in Britain - that the French have a better quality of life studies suggest they are less content with their lot. Danny Blanchflower, a Bank of England
economist, has researched relative happiness levels across many countries and the results are clear:
the French trail the British in terms of happiness, life satisfaction and job satisfaction.
As unemployment has a strong correlation with happiness levels, it is probably safe to conclude that
jobless figures at close to 9% - the eurozone's highest - is the main reason. And unemployment
remains particularly acute amongst the young, at over 20%. Small wonder, then, that so many
young French people come to London to find work. This is a loss to France since many of them are
highly educated.
In Britain they enjoy the flexibility and jobs that the UK labour market offers them. About 300,000
now live in Britain and France has suffered the biggest emigration since the Huguenots fled in the
16th and 17th centuries. Indeed, Mr Sarkozy came to London earlier this year appealing to these
émigrés to return.
The French economy cannot be turned around swiftly and the new president may struggle to make
changes, as they may cause the type of civil unrest that has derailed so many attempts at reform in
the past.
Signs of hope
Throwing public money at the problem, which is the traditional urge of French politicians, will be
difficult since the country is running a budget deficit of 2.5% of GDP - well above the eurozone
average of 1.6% - and has debt levels of 64% of GDP, double those of Britain. With the state
already accounting for half of GDP, the public-spending route now looks exhausted.
Reform of the labour market and public finances are not enough. Like any country seeking to
generate jobs, France needs growth, which has become its latest problem and one which may take a
long time to address. The French economy grew rapidly around the turn of the millennium but has
struggled since then, only once exceeding 2%.
There are signs of hope. Many of Europe's biggest companies are French and they have highly
productive workforces. Some labour market reforms carried out in the past couple of years appear
to be bearing fruit. The Paris region, in particular, is becoming a magnet for global IT and services
companies and is sucking in record amounts of inward investment.
So, rather than gloating at France's misfortunes, it is best to wish the country "bonne chance et bon
courage" as it tries to make itself as attractive to its own people as it is to the rest of us.
[email protected]
To MBA or not to MBA?
For graduates, personal skills can rate higher than specialist knowledge. Tony Martin weighs the
options.


guardian.co.uk,
Saturday March 9 2002
"You could be forgiven for thinking just about every man and his dog has an MBA these days," says
Anthony Hesketh, of Lancaster University management school. We know what he means - such is
the worldwide growth and awareness of the MBA that this icon of career advancement and high
salaries has almost become synonymous with postgraduate education in the business sector.
In reality, many postgraduate alternatives to an MBA exist. The total number of MBA programmes
worldwide is around 2,400, while other masters and advanced courses in the whole spectrum of
business education add up to more than 10,000.
Two key distinctions exist in matching what aspiring students want with what the universities offer:
first is generalisation versus specialisation and second is "pre-experience" or "post-experience" and the two distinctions are interlinked. Carol Blackman, of the University of Westminster school of
business, explains the first distinction. "Specialist masters programmes are designed either for
career preparation in a clearly defined type of job or profession, or to develop or enhance
professional competence in individuals who are already experienced. The aim is to increase the
depth of their knowledge in the specialist area. "The MBA, on the other hand, is a generic
management programme which provides practising managers with an opportunity for personal
development with a broadly based introduction to all management subject areas and the theory and
practice of management". Specialist knowledge, however, is not everything when it comes to
finding a job. Surveys by the UK's Association of Graduate Recruiters (AGR) repeatedly confirm
that what employers seek - and continue to find scarce - are the personal skills that will make
graduates valuable employees. In fact, when recruiting new graduates, most employers considered
these skills more important than specialist knowledge. What employers seek most from new
graduates are enthusiasm and self-motivation, interpersonal skills, team working and good oral
communication. Of the 19 skills considered important in AGR's 2002 survey, just three require
specialist education - numeracy, computer literacy and foreign languages - and these are low on the
list. Nunzio Quacquarelli, chief executive of topcareers.net, takes this further. "Clearly, salary
differentials for those with a second degree, but no significant work experience, do not match those
of a good MBA and a number of years in the workplace. According to the AGR research, about
14% of employers offered a better salary to those new graduates with a masters - or even a
doctorate. "In my view, the salary improvement of 10% to 15% largely reflects the recruit's age and
earning expectancy rather than the increase in human capital perceived by the employer. "Contrast
this with our latest topmba.com MBA Recruiters Survey results which shows that the average salary
paid to an MBA with good work experience in the US and Europe is US$80,000 - around two and a
half times the average starting salary for a young postgraduate." Anthony Hesketh poses the
question whether holding a second degree may even be a disadvantage. "I have seen many reports
over the years suggesting that employers view postgraduates as eminently less employable than
those with a first degree. Drive, motivation and career focus, not to mention ability, are what
employers value, and are prepared to pay for. A postgraduate immediately has an uphill task
explaining an additional year, or three years, of study."
This view may seem cynical but if you are about to graduate and are considering a further degree,
you should take the realities into account and ask yourself some hard questions: · Is the
qualification I am considering going to impress employers?
· Is it going to give me the edge over less qualified candidates?
· Is my consideration of a second degree because I am not sure of my career direction?
· Will employers consider that I lack drive and ambition because I have deferred my attempts to
find a worthwhile job?
Many postgraduate options exist that can help you to acquire the personal skills that employers in
the world of business are seeking. Consider, for example, the offerings of Strathclyde and Durham
universities.
According to Dr Nic Beech, of the University of Strathclyde graduate school of business: "The MSc
in business management (MBM), offered at USGSB is suitable for students with a good first degree
- particularly a non-business first degree - but little or no business experience. Our MBM offers
these graduates the opportunity to combine the specialisation of their first degree with a general
management qualification - something employers recognise produces a well-rounded individual.
"Graduates tell us that the MBM allows them to access sectors previously out of reach. It is
designed to develop the business knowledge, practical experience and personal skills which
employers are seeking."
At the University of Durham business school, Sheena Maberly is careers development officer; she
too sees high value in qualifications such as the Durham MA in management (DMAM). She says:
"Whatever your first degree, from anthropology to zoology, a postgraduate business degree can help
you gain a competitive edge in an over-crowded job market. If you're just starting out in your
career, a business masters degree like the DMAM will enable you to develop skills and knowledge
directly relevant to employers' needs. So, extending your studies into management can make you
better equipped to 'hit the ground running' - and that's what employers expect. Recruiters are highly
selective and a vocational qualification is additional evidence of motivation."
Before committing yourself to postgraduate study, weigh up the options. Perhaps the best route
might be to take a job now and plan to do an MBA a few years down the line? Try to get
sponsorship or paid work-experience with a company. Or go for a well researched and thoroughly
thought through masters that will help you land a good job. Ultimately the choice is yours - but
focus on the future, and on your target employer's expectations.
Specialist masters are not only for newly graduating students. Business professionals with
ambitions to advance their career a few years on from graduation consider different criteria and face
different questions. The main question is: 'To MBA, or not to MBA?'
Although you may already be earning quite well, consider whether earning that average $80,000 is
adequately motivating and whether you will see adequate return on what is bound to be a
considerable investment.
Originally the masters in business administration was just that - a general degree that provides the
knowledge and practical experience for its holder to make an important contribution to the overall
running of an organisation. That's still what most MBA programmes offer.
Over the past few years, however, specialist MBAs have developed to give post-experience students
further options. Specialist MBAs are most strongly developed in international management,
finance, marketing, operations management, entrepreneurship, e-commerce and information
management. MBA programmes have also been targeted at niche employment sectors, including
insurance, public sector, health and education and sports management.
"One example developed for finance professionals by the Oxford Institute of International Finance
(a partnership between the Oxford Brookes University business school and the UK-based
Association of Chartered Certified Accountants) is their tutor-supported online MBA programme,"
reports school director Paul Gilliam. "The course already has an international cohort of students and
includes written as well as online materials."
A specialist MBA, however, will not replace a masters programme that concentrates on a specific
professional area. London Business School has long had a powerful finance faculty and this has
been enhanced since it developed the highly successful Masters in Finance (MiF) in the mid-1990s.
According to Janet Dobson, the course director: "For MiF graduates the relatively more narrow
focus is balanced by in-depth concentration on aspects of finance to which most MBAs do not even
aspire."
The graduate programmes of New York University's school of continuing and professional studies
(SCPS) are industry-specific and provide a good example of specialist masters study in businessrelated areas targeted at experienced students. The programmes offered include masters of science
in direct and interactive marketing, hospitality industry studies, tourism and travel management, IT
management and systems, publishing, real estate, digital imaging and design, translation and
construction management.
Catherine Ruby, from NYU, says: "These graduate programmes share a common goal - to provide
knowledge and skills to students so that they can be leaders in their field. Our faculty are corporate
leaders - entrepreneurs who have carved out important niches in industry. Students benefit from the
specific industry knowledge that these faculty members bring to the classroom. At SCPS, we offer
every opportunity for students to learn from faculty's hard-won achievements." For the postexperience student, international options are boundless - but look hard before you leap. There are
many stories in which perfectly good MBA students have not matched their aspirations with the
reality of employment. The passport to success may lie in specialisation, not generalisation.
WRITING ASSIGNMENTS
HOW TO WRITE AN APPLICATION LETTER
COVER LETTERS
BUSINESS LETTERS
PART TWO:
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
Overview
The application essay or personal statement is a standard component of most graduate and
professional school applications. The requirements for such essays vary from program to program,
but some general principles apply.
Application essays give you an opportunity to explain -- through narrative, example, and analysis -aspects of your personal, educational, and professional history that may have led you to pursue an
advanced degree at a particular institution. Admissions committees rely heavily on these essays to
put a face on impersonal test scores and grade point averages.
For this reason, it's important for you to use details and thoughtful self-presentation to make your
face one that stands out in a crowd. Whether you're applying to medical school or a program in
landscape architecture, your essay should demonstrate your ability to make connections between
your experience, education, and the program you have chosen. The most challenging aspect of the
application essay is making those connections in a relatively small amount of space.
Frequently Asked Questions
**Important note: Expectations for application essays vary widely. The answers below are meant
to give some general guidelines, but may not be applicable to the particular program to which you
are applying.
Is it all right to use
the first person?
In most cases it's essential. The application essay is
about you and what you think about yourself and the
field you want to study.
top
How far back
should I go in
tracing my
background?
For your essay, choose the details that you want to
highlight in order to best answer the question at
hand. The application itself may provide you with a
chance to give detailed educational and job history.
Stories about how one became interested in a
particular field might reference things as far back as
grade school. At the same time, mentioning
academic accomplishments prior to college might be
viewed as naive. More recent honors will carry more
weight.
How long should
the essay or
statement be?
Your essay should never exceed the limit given in
the application instructions.
If no limit is specified, make your essay no longer
than two pages.
top
How much of the
information
already in my
application should
I repeat?
Admissions reviewers may not read every detail of
your application carefully. Therefore, highlight
information from your application that you
definitely want noted.
Do not merely list things, though. Be sure to explain
the significance of the items you mention and make
them relevant to the essay as a whole.
top
Should I include or
explain negative
experiences?
Should I call
attention to a low
(or high) G.P.A.?
In some cases, yes. If something in your academic
record is weak or questionable, a thoughtful
explanation could help.
Discussing a negative experience that taught you
something valuable or helped you make important
life or career decisions can sometimes be a good
way to provide a reviewer with insight into your
character and professional goals.
However, if you don't want to draw attention to a
particular situation (or have nothing positive to say
about it), you might best avoid bringing it up at all.
How "personal"
By their nature, these essays are "personal" in that
should I be?
they ask you not only to tell things about you but to
reflect on their significance to your past and future
educational and career goals.
Some applications specifically request that you
provide a personal narrative, while others focus
more on educational and professional experience.
In either case, it's important to connect your
experiences (personal, educational, or professional)
to the goals and requirements of the program to
which you are applying and to be guided by the
essay instructions as to the main content of your
essay.
top
How experimental
should I be?
Sometimes doing something unusual with your
essay can be a way to stand out from the crowd.
It can be risky, however, and it requires a high
degree of sophistication and skill. Whatever flashy
or clever tactic you choose to use, you have to be
able to use it to complete the task at hand, which is
to demonstrate your preparation and suitability for
the program to which you are applying.
At the same time, readers of experimental essays
have vastly different reactions to them. While some
appreciate a break from the more standard essay,
others may see it as a failure to follow instructions.
A safer strategy is to use compelling details and a
clear, artful writing style.
Should I format
this as a standard
essay (with an
introduction, body,
conclusion)?
To one degree or another, yes. You want to give your
essay a discernable shape -- one that indicates a
direction, takes your reader to a destination, and
helps him or her understand the significance of what
you've written about.
top
Before you begin: useful tips for writing your essay
Before you start writing, keep these principles in mind:
Less is more
That is, you have a lot you could say, but that doesn't necessarily mean that
you should try to say everything.
Be selective. Organize your essay around a unifying theme rather than
merely listing your accomplishments.
top
Give good examples
and explanations
Try to avoid making statements that could be cut and pasted out of your
essay and into someone else's with little difficulty. One detail is worth a
thousand cliches.
For example, "I have always wanted to be a doctor because I enjoy helping
people," is a sentiment with which almost anyone applying to medical
school might agree.
Make this idea meaningful by giving an example of something that
inspired your interest. Explain how and why it had an effect on you. These
details show your enthusiasm and dedication far more effectively than just
saying that you care about something does.
top
Help your reader
Be sure that at some level, you are helping your reader understand how the
information you are providing demonstrates your potential for this kind of
advanced study as well as the soundness of your reasons for pursuing it.
Follow instructions
carefully
Make sure that your essay is responding to the question(s).
top
Cover your bases
Make sure that you've called attention to your successes and relevant
experience and that you've explained any discrepancies in your record.
Proofread your
essay!
Spelling, typographical, and grammatical errors are the written equivalent
of having wrinkled clothes and bad breath on a job interview.
They immediately suggest a lack of professionalism to a reader who has to
make quick judgements about potentially hundreds of candidates.
Leave yourself time to proofread and enlist the help of others to make sure
that your essay is immaculate.
Getting started: Brainstorming exercises
Writers of application essays often feel that they have either too much to say or too little. In either
case, a good way to get started is to do some writing that will help generate and focus your ideas.
Use the space below to do some brainstorming and mail your writing to yourself later (using the
form below) to keep a record of what you've written. If you're more comfortable writing by hand,
take this opportunity to brainstorm on paper in response to the questions and suggestions below.
Some specific questions to consider
1. What experiences and/or education have made you want to pursue this degree program?
2. When did you first become interested in this field of study? How have you been pursuing
your interest (e.g., education, volunteer work, professional experience)?
3. What most appeals to you about this program -- in general (i.e., the field of study) and more
specifically (i.e., the particular department or school's program)? What makes you and your
interests a good fit?
4. What do you plan to do with the education you hope to receive?
5. What do you think is the most interesting or notable thing about you? How do you think it
might relate to the program that you want to pursue? How could you use it as a jumping off
point or organizational device for your essay?
Send yourself an email message with what you've written so far by filling
out and submitting the form below.
top
Writing a draft: From outline to essay
Now that you have a sense of what you want to write about, draft your essay.
Make an outline
Use the space below to make an outline for your essay. What will the main theme be? What points
do you want to be sure to include? If you already have a draft written, use this space to jot down the
organization of your essay based on what you've already written.
Develop your body paragraphs with example and explanation
Try developing examples and explanations for one statement that you'd like to make about your
experience or interest in this program. Be on the lookout for those cut-and-pastable sentences and
replace them with details that show, rather than tell.
Once you've gotten a good draft of the main body of your essay, go to the next section on
introductions.
Send yourself an email message with what you've written so far by filling
out and submitting the form below.
top
Back to the beginning: The introduction
Once you have a good sense of your essay's focus, try writing an introduction that will engage your
reader and suggest the direction in which your essay will go.
Not every essay has to have a clever or original introduction. One which is straightforward and to
the point can also be effective and may, in some cases, be what a particular program wants to see.
Most important is its effectiveness in setting a tone and direction for what follows.
Take a look at these sample introductions.
Now, try drafting your own introduction in the space below:
Send yourself an email message with what you've written so far
top
What is a cover letter?
To be considered for almost any position, you will need to write a letter of application. Such a letter
introduces you, explains your purpose for writing, highlights a few of your experiences or skills,
and requests an opportunity to meet personally with the potential employer.
Precisely because this letter is your introduction to an employer and because first impressions
count, you should take great care to write an impressive and effective letter. Remember that the
letter not only tells of your accomplishments but also reveals how effectively you can communicate.
The appropriate content, format, and tone for application letters vary according to the position and
the personality of the applicant. Thus you will want to ask several people (if possible) who have had
experience in obtaining jobs or in hiring in your field to critique a draft of your letter and to offer
suggestions for revision.
Despite the differences in what constitutes a good application letter, the suggestions on these pages
apply to all
How to format a cover letter

Type each letter individually, or use a word processor.

Use good quality bond paper.

Whenever possible, address each employer by name and title.

Each letter should be grammatically correct, properly punctuated, and perfectly spelled. It
also should be immaculately clean and free of errors. Proofread carefully!

Use conventional business correspondence form. If you are not certain of how to do this, ask
for help at the Writing Center.
Try to limit your letter to a single page. Be succinct.

Assess the employer's needs and your skills. Then try to match them in the letter in a way
that will appeal to the employer's self-interest.

As much as possible, tailor your letter to each job opportunity. Demonstrate, if possible,
some knowledge of the organization to which you are applying.

Write in a style that is mature but clear; avoid long and intricate sentences and paragraphs;
avoid jargon. Use action verbs and the active voice; convey confidence, optimism, and
enthusiasm coupled with respect and professionalism.

Show some personality, but avoid hard-sell, gimmicky, or unorthodox letters. Start fast;
attract interest immediately. For more information see Business Letter Format.

Arrange the points in a logical sequence; organize each paragraph around a main point.
How to organize a cover letter
Below is one possible way to arrange the content of your cover letter.
Opening Paragraph
State why you are writing.
Establish a point of contact (advertisement in a specific place
for a specific position; a particular person's suggestion that you
write): give some brief idea of who you are (a Senior
engineering student at UW; a recent Ph.D. in History).
top
Paragraph(s)
2(-3)
Highlight a few of the most salient points from your enclosed
resume.
Arouse your reader's curiosity by mentioning points that are
likely to be important for the position you are seeking.
Show how your education and experience suit the requirements
of the position, and, by elaborating on a few points from your
resume, explain what you could contribute to the organization.
(Your letter should complement, not restate, your resume.)
top
Closing paragraph
Stress action. Politely request an interview at the employer's
convenience.
Indicate what supplementary material is being sent under
separate cover and offer to provide additional information (a
portfolio, a writing sample, a sample publication, a dossier, an
audition tape), and explain how it can be obtained.
Thank the reader for his/her consideration and indicate that you
are looking forward to hearing from him/her.
top
Questions to guide your writing*

Who is my audience?

What is my objective?

What are the objectives and needs of my audience?

How can I best express my objective in relationship to my audience's objectives and needs?

What specific benefits can I offer to my audience and how can I best express them?

What opening sentence and paragraph will grab the attention of my audience in a positive
manner and invite them to read further?

How can I maintain and heighten the interest and desire of the reader throughout the letter?

What evidence can I present of my value to my audience?

If a resume is enclosed with the letter, how can I best make the letter advertise the resume?

What closing sentence or paragraph will best assure the reader of my capabilities and
persuade him or her to contact me for further information?

Is the letter my best professional effort?

Have I spent sufficient time drafting, revising, and proofreading the letter?
*From Ronald L. Kraunich, William J. Bauis. High Impact Resumes & Letters. Virginia
Beach, VA: Impact Publications, 1982.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BUSINESS LETTERS
The Block Form
5 Hill Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53700
March 15, 2005
Ms. Helen Jones
President
Jones, Jones & Jones
123 International Lane
Boston, Massachusetts 01234
Dear Ms. Jones:
Ah, business letter format-there are block formats, and indented formats, and
modified block formats . . . and who knows what others. To simplify matters,
we're demonstrating the block format on this page, one of the two most common
formats. For authoritative advice about all the variations, we highly
recommend The Gregg Reference Manual, 9th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001),
a great reference tool for workplace communications. There seems to be no
consensus about such fine points as whether to skip a line after your return
address and before the date: some guidelines suggest that you do; others do
not. Let's hope that your business letter succeeds no matter which choice
you make!
When you use the block form to write a business letter, all the information
is typed flush left, with one-inch margins all around. First provide your
own address, then skip a line and provide the date, then skip one more line
and provide the inside address of the party to whom the letter is addressed.
If you are using letterhead that already provides your address, do not
retype that information; just begin with the date. For formal letters,
avoid abbreviations where possible.
Skip another line before the salutation, which should be followed by a colon.
Then write the body of your letter as illustrated here, with no indentation
at the beginnings of paragraphs. Skip lines between paragraphs.
After writing the body of the letter, type the closing, followed by a comma,
leave 3 blank lines, then type your name and title (if applicable), all
flush left. Sign the letter in the blank space above your typed name. Now
doesn't that look professional?
Sincerely,
John Doe
Administrative Assistant
5 Hill Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53700
15 March 2005
Ms. Helen Jones
President
Jones, Jones & Jones
123 International Lane
Boston, Massachusetts 01234
Dear Ms. Jones:
Ah, business letter format--there are block formats, and
indented formats, and modified block formats . . . and who
knows what others. To simplify matters, we're demonstrating
the indented format on this page, one of the two most common
formats. For authoritative advice about all the variations,
we highly recommend The Gregg Reference Manual, 9th ed. (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), a great reference tool for workplace
communications. There seems to be no consensus about such
fine points as whether to skip a line after your return
address and before the date: some guidelines suggest that you
do; others do not. Let's hope that your business letter
succeeds no matter which choice you make!
If you are using the indented form, place your address at
the top, with the left edge of the address aligned with the
center of the page. Skip a line and type the date so that it
lines up underneath your address. Type the inside address and
salutation flush left; the salutation should be followed by a
colon. For formal letters, avoid abbreviations.
Indent the first line of each paragraph one-half inch.
Skip lines between paragraphs.
Instead of placing the closing and signature lines
flush left, type them in the center, even with the address
and date above, as illustrated here. Now doesn't that look
professional?
Sincerely,
John Doe
Introduction
How to Write a Character Analysis in 10 Easy Steps
As you were reading your assigned work, you had probably been engaging in an informal character
analysis without even knowing it, whether from your own opinions, text you selected to highlight,
or notes that you wrote. With a little guidance on what to do with those various notations, writing a
character analysis should not be a problem!
1) Pay attention to the character’s ethics. Does the character make just or unjust choices?
Consider Atticus Finch in Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird. Atticus does not make morally
correct choices only when it is convenient for him to do so. Rather, he shows he’s a truly just
character by sticking to his principles even when his life is at stake.
2) Decide whether the character’s actions are wise or unwise. For example, one may think of
Friar Laurence in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet as being a character who continually makes poor
decisions that reflect his inner corruption.
3) What is the character’s motivation? As you are mulling over the pros and cons of each
character’s internal thoughts and external actions, you will want to also consider why the character
is acting or thinking in a particular way. Has the author given you any clues about the character’s
past? In Amy Tan’s novel The Joy Luck Club, Lindo Jong’s domination of her daughter Waverly
can be understood, if not entirely excused, by her terrible experiences in China.
4) Consider the effects of the character’s behavior on other characters. Jane Austen’s Pride and
Prejudice is rife with the effects of one character’s actions on others. When Lydia decides to run off
with the charlatan Wickham, she puts the whole family’s reputation, as well has her own, at risk,
and even involves those outside her family, like Darcy.
5) Look for repeatedly used words that describe the character. Those words often give insight
into a character’s psychology and motivations. In John Steinbeck’s novel East of Eden, Kathy is
frequently referred to as having “sharp little teeth” and a “flickering tongue,” which are symbols of
her snake-like monstrousness.
6) Be aware of items associated with the character. They may say something about his or her
state of mind. A classic example is the delicate unicorn figurine in Tennessee Williams’ play The
Glass Menagerie. The figurine is symbolic of Laura’s own sense of hope and her own fragility.
7) Read between the lines. Often what a character does not say is as important as what he or she
does say. Think of Abner Snopes in William Faulkner’s short story “Barn Burning.” When the court
finds Snopes guilty of ruining his boss’ rug, prior knowledge of Abner’s character tells us that his
silence upon hearing the verdict actually speaks volumes. We know he will react later...and
violently.
8) Is the character “flat” or “round”? A character is considered flat (or static) when he or she
does not experience change of any kind, does not grow from beginning to end. Shakespeare often
uses comic villains as flat characters, like Don Jon in Much Ado About Nothing. Round characters
are those who do experience some sort of growth, like Nora in Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. By
the end of the play, she has gone from being meek and submissive to being strong and liberated.
9) Consider the historical time period of the character. Refrain from making modern judgments
about the past; put the character’s actions and thoughts in context. A female character living in
England in the 1800s obviously could not make the choices that she could today, for both political
and social reasons.
10) Finally, what does the author think? Look for any of the author’s own judgments about the
characters he or she has created. The author may be directing you toward an intended interpretation.
In The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne certainly meant for his readers to see Hester as good
and Chillingsworth as evil.
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
How much material can I cover in an oral presentation?
Most conferences and symposia allow somewhere between ten and twenty-five minutes for an oral
presentation. In that amount of time, you can only realistically cover the most significant aspects of
your project.
You don’t have to provide all of the specific details; save them for the Question and Answer period
or for individual conversations with audience members. Devote your time to stating your key
points clearly and effectively.
How many pages long should my presentation be?
Generally, it takes about two minutes to read one typed, double-spaced page. Of
course, this will vary depending on your font, its size, and how strictly you
adhere to the script you have written for yourself. You will have to practice
giving your presentation aloud to check your estimate.
How should I consider my audience for my presentation?
Any time you are presenting your work, you should decide what to include and what to exclude
based on the composition of your audience.
Most conferences and symposia audiences will be composed of both specialists and non-specialists.
The specialists will be highly knowledgeable in your field and will be able to give you feedback on
the specific details of your project. The non-specialists won’t necessarily be informed about the
technical aspects of your field, but they will be intellectually curious and well-educated, and they’ll
be interested in the bigger-picture aspects of your project.
Keeping this audience in mind is crucial for you as you decide what exactly you’ll say in your
presentation.
What kinds of information will my audience want to hear?
Most importantly, your audience will want to know how your project impacts the way they see and
live in the world.
To provide your audience with this information, you should determine your take-home message:
What is the single most important thing you want your audience to understand, believe, accept, or
do after they hear you?
Your most important job is to articulate this “take-home message” in one or two sentences. If you
can’t succinctly express your central message, how will your listeners be able to?
Once you have clearly articulated your “take-home message,” choose the pieces of evidence that
most effectively develop that message, and eliminate those that are redundant or of secondary
importance. Of course, you need to convey the complexity of your ideas, but you don’t want to
overwhelm the audience by providing them with more details than they can process in ten minutes.
What if I’m not sure exactly what I want my audience to take away from my
presentation?
Often it’s difficult to zero in on the single most interesting idea in a project full of intriguing
information. As you are trying to identify your take-home message, think about what your listeners
might find most exciting in your work.
Not surprisingly, presenters and listeners alike often find the most exciting parts of a project to be
its objective (the explanation of why the project needs to be done in the first place) and its
significance (the explanation of how the results, whether they’re final or preliminary or projected,
will impact your field or the world more generally).
In particular, listeners like to know how a project will affect them personally, so try to think about
how your work could contribute to larger changes that could ultimately impact your audience
members’ everyday lives.
One of the best ways to figure out what’s most important and exciting about your project is to talk
about your work with potential audience members. Set up an appointment with the Writing
Center to explain your project and to get feedback about what your listeners find particularly
intriguing and relevant.
What should I say if I'm not finished with my project?
Presenters often present their work before their projects are complete. If that is the case, you have
several options for constructing your presentation.
If you have any preliminary results, you can focus on them and use them as examples of the kind
of results you are hoping to obtain. You can discuss the significance of these results. Do they
suggest that more work is necessary? Do they suggest that the final results will be particularly
promising or revolutionary? Do they suggest that you need to revise your approach? Do they
suggest that the field as a whole needs to revise its ideas on the subject?
If you don’t have any preliminary results, you can focus on projected results: what do you think
you might find when your results are complete? Why do you expect this? What significance would
such results have?
In any case, whether you have complete, partial, or only projected results, keep in mind that your
explanation of those results – their significance – is more important than the raw results
themselves.
After deciding what to include, how do I begin writing my
presentation?
First, consider the unique needs of a listening audience (as
opposed to a reading one). When we’re reading, we have the
ability to read a difficult sentence several times until we fully
understand it; we can flip back a page to see how a new idea
fits in with the previous one; we can turn back to the
beginning to refresh ourselves on the essay’s main argument.
When we’re listening to an oral presentation, we can’t do any
of these things, and so we depend on the presenter to do some
of the work of clarification for us.
Since listeners and readers process information very differently, effective oral presentations and
effective written documents differ dramatically, even if they are presenting the same information.
Because of this fundamental difference, it doesn’t work to simply take a twenty- (or thirty- or forty) page paper and cut bits here and there until it’s short enough to deliver in ten or twenty minutes.
Think of your presentation, then, as an entirely new document that uses your original paper as
source material. This document will need a new (more simplified) structure, a new introduction,
and a new statement of argument geared specifically towards a listening audience.
To begin writing your presentation, set aside any writing you have already done, and on a blank
page, articulate your take-home message and make a list of your objective, significance, and the
most important pieces of evidence that you think you will probably want to include.
How should I deliver my presentation--by reading from a
script or from an outline?
A presentation can be effective when read from a script or from an outline. Which format you use
depends on which one feels most comfortable for you.
Here's a chart of the benefits (Pros) and drawbacks (Cons) of each method of delivery:
Format
Pros
Cons
Reading from a written
script…
helps you make sure you
don’t forget any details.
doesn’t allow you to interact
as effectively with your
audience.
allows you better control
over the length of your
presentation.
Delivering from an
outline…
allows you have more eye
contact with and
responsiveness to your
audience
requires you to rely more
heavily on your memory
leaves more uncertainty
about exactly how long it
will take you to deliver the
presentation.
Whether you ultimately choose to deliver your presentation from a script or an outline, it is
important for you to begin by writing out your entire presentation word for word. You will need to
go through several drafts, experimenting with what to include, what to exclude, how to express your
ideas, and how to organize them.
Once you have a final draft and once you have read through it many times on your own, you can
decide if you would like to deliver it from the script you’ve written or whether you would like to
make an outline of the script and deliver your presentation from that.
What structural and stylistic techniques will help me organize
my presentation so that my audience can follow it?
One of the easiest ways to make your presentation easy to follow is to make sure that it reads like a
story. Audiences are drawn to stories that seem to be relevant to their own lives, so try to make it
clear to your listeners how your research might impact them someday.
Keeping in mind your take-home message and the most exciting aspects of your research that
you’ve already identified, organize your material into a story that explains what you did, why you
did it, what you found or expect to find, and how those findings are significant. (Note that these
are the same basic categories that you probably included in your abstract; here in the actual
presentation, you have room to elaborate more fully on the basic information you included in your
abstract.)
Good stories include all information necessary to understanding the final outcome. If a
storyteller forgets to tell us about the single aspect of the main character’s background that
ultimately determines the story’s outcome, we as listeners end up confused. Similarly, if you skip
straight to a description of your experiment or your investigation without telling your audience why
you did it in the first place, it will be much more difficult for them to process the ideas you’ll go on
to present. You need to make sure you provide your listeners with all the necessary parts of the
story in a straightforward and logical order.
On the other hand, a good storyteller doesn’t give equal weight to every single detail; we don’t
often hear about a character brushing his teeth or eating her cereal, because these details aren’t as
important as others that directly impact the story’s plot. Similarly, you do not need to dwell on
every single detail of your project. For example, you don’t need to tell your audience what every
single previous scholar has said about your topic, and you don’t need to tell them what brand of test
tube you used or even how long it took you to run your experiment, unless these details directly
impact your take-home message. Instead, emphasize the ones that are most interesting, most
relevant, and most accessible to your audience.
How can I make sure my listeners don’t get lost or miss anything important?
There are many effective ways to structure a presentation, but all of them involve three basic parts:



an overview in which you state the purpose of your project and give your audience of what
aspects of the project you will be covering in your presentation,
the body of your presentation, which tells your story, and
a conclusion that briefly sums up the most important ideas you want the audience to learn
from your presentation.
Some presenters choose to state their results and their significance right away in their overview and
then show how they arrived at those results in the body of the presentation. Others choose to state
the objective and the main problem in the overview and save the results and significance for the end
of the presentation. Decide what you think would work the best and as a professor or fellow student
if one of these structures is more common in your discipline.
Once you have a cohesive story and have organized it into a straightforward structure, make sure to
insert signposts (words or phrases that point out where you’ve been, where you are, and where
you’re going) that guide your reader through your story. Don’t be afraid to be more repetitive than
you would be in a written paper. Since your listeners can’t flip back to the previous page or pause
on a particular sentence, they need your help in keeping track of how all the pieces of your
argument fit together.
When constructing these sorts of signposts, make sure that you employ consistent vocabulary.
Don’t use the thesaurus to come up with ten different ways of stating your main point – such
variation will confuse your audience. Instead, continue to use the same key words to show how all
of your points are connected. In an oral presentation, repetition is not a problem; it is the key to
effective communication.
What types of signposts can I incorporate into my presentation?
You can think of signpost like the signs you might see on a road: they are words or phrases that tell
you where you’ve been, where you are, and where you’re going. There are several types of
signposts that are particularly useful for listening audiences:
Numerical Signposts
You can use numerical signposts like “First… Second… Third…” to help your listeners see how
several parts of your presentation fit together, to help them follow you as you detail a complicated
process, or to help them zero in on the three (or two, or four…) most important ideas you want them
to remember from your presentation.
Numbering may seem overly blunt in writing, but in oral presentations it is extremely helpful for
signposting major points or pieces of evidence.
Parallel Structure
You can use parallel structure to mark transitions between main sections. Use exactly the same
phrase to mark each transition, and then emphasize it with a brief pause to let your audience catch
on.
For example, if you are giving a presentation on the sociological obstacles facing New York City’s
five boroughs, you would introduce each section of your presentation with the following phrases:
“The main obstacle Manhattan faces is….”
“The main obstacle Queens faces is….”
“The main obstacle the Bronx faces is….”
“The main obstacle Brooklyn faces is….”
While this repetition might seem elementary in a written document, it provides helpful guidance
and continuity for a listening audience.
Old-to-New Transitions
An old-to-new transition is a sentence that pauses to explain to your audience where you’ve been
and where you’re headed in your presentation. They are particularly useful for reminding your
listeners of how successive pieces of your presentation fit together. Again, repetition of key terms
is essential.
For instance, you might employ the following transitions in a presentation about the psychological
impact of documentary films on their viewers:
“I’d like to begin by defining exactly what I mean by the term ‘documentary film’….”
“Now that I have explained exactly what a documentary film is, I would like to focus on the
particular example of Sherman’s March to explain how this kind of film can have a peculiar
psychological effect on its viewers….”
“And so we see through an examination of this example that documentary films can have a very
peculiar effect on their viewers. It is not only documentary films that have this kind of effect,
however; all such ‘non-fiction’ presentations of information, whether on the big or small screen, can
elicit similar effects. This larger-scale effect is relevant to us today because….”
How can I make sure my audience gets my point in my presentation?
Test it out. Ask several different people to listen to you practice delivering your presentation, and
afterwards ask them what they identified as the most important points. If your listeners repeat back
the same key points that you identified as the main ideas you wanted to communicate, then you’ll
know your presentation is effective. If they didn’t pick up on something you feel is important, then
you’ll need to revise the presentation to give more emphasis to that idea. It’s wise to do this kind of
test with several different listeners. We suggest you test our your presentation on a professor, a
Writing Center instructor, a friend of yours who specializes in your discipline, and a friend who
specializes in a different discipline.
Choose your language carefully and structure your sentences thoughtfully. Most of us have
been trained to write in an “academic” style that sounds “smart” and “scholarly”. What we often
mean when we describe the academic style is writing that is subtle, dense with meaning, peppered
with specialized vocabulary, and full of long, complex sentences that vary in structure.
However, the sort of subtlety that this “academic” writing style privileges is exactly what you don’t
want to do in an oral presentation. Rather than sounding “smart” and “scholarly,” it will most likely
make your presentation sound confusing and ineffective.
In order to make your presentation as effective as possible, simplify your vocabulary and your
sentence structure.
How can I simplify my language and sentence-structure to accomodate a
listening audience?
Keep your audience’s needs in mind. Remember that the Undergraduate Symposium audience is
composed of intelligent non-specialists. Don’t assume that they know the background information
that scholars in your own field take for granted, and don’t assume that they know the specific
technical terms that are common in your field. Make sure to explain any essential background
information and to define any field-specific terms in ways that your audience can understand.
Visit the Writing Center’s online handbook. You will find excellent advice and examples to help
you write clear, concise, sentences, and they offer a detailed list of succinct transition words that
will help you make the connections between your ideas clear.
Break up long sentences. Often sentences are long because they contain lots of ideas that have
been packed very tightly together. Sentences with lots of ideas joined by conjunctions (“and,”
“but,” “or,” “however,” etc.) or prepositional phrases (“to,” “for,” “on,” “in,” “because of,”
“towards,” “through,” etc.) can thoroughly confuse a listening audience. Break these complicated
sentences into two or more shorter, more straightforward sentences so that your listeners don’t miss
any important ideas.
Keep the subject and verb close to each other. Watch out for sentences that have long clauses
embedded between the subject and verb. These long clauses make it harder for listeners to figure
out which of the ideas is the most important. If the information in that clause is vital, condense it or
make it a separate sentence. If it’s not vital, remove it. For example:
Original
Revised
After conducting hundreds of interviews over After conducting hundreds of interviews over
the span of several months, and only after
the span of several months, the researchers
losing access to their most relevant
discovered too late that they needed to change
informants, did the researchers, who had
the fundamental terms they were using to
only brought enough supplies for eight
conduct their interviews. This problem was
weeks, discover that they needed to change compounded by the fact that they had lost
the fundamental terms they were using to
access to their most relevant informants and
conduct their interviews.
had not brought enough supplies to remain
any longer.
Keep the subject and verb at the front of the sentence. Watch out for sentences that place the main
idea at the end of the sentence. Such sentences are difficult to listen to because the meaning of the
sentence is delayed. In the following original example, a listener wouldn’t know who had done the
long list of activities until the very end:
Original
Revised
After conducting hundreds of interviews over The researchers only discovered that they
the span of several months, after losing
needed to change the fundamental terms they
access to their most relevant informants, and were using to conduct their interviews after
after running out of supplies, the
conducting hundreds of interviews over the
researchers eventually discovered that they span of several months.. This problem was
needed to change the fundamental terms they compounded by the fact that they had lost
were using to conduct their interviews.
access to their most relevant informants and
had not brought enough supplies to remain
any longer.
Should I read my presentation from a written script, or should
I deliver it from an outline?
Both of these methods can be effective; each one has pros and cons. Which format you use depends
on which one feels most comfortable for you.
Format
Pros
Cons
Reading from a written
script…
helps you make sure you
don’t forget any details.
doesn’t allow you to interact
as effectively with your
audience.
allows you better control
over the length of your
presentation.
Delivering from an
outline…
allows you have more eye
contact with and
responsiveness to your
audience.
requires you to rely more
heavily on your memory.
leaves more uncertainty
about exactly how long it
will take you to deliver the
presentation.
Whether you ultimately choose to deliver your presentation from a script or an outline, it is
important for you to begin by writing out your entire presentation word for word. You will need to
go through several drafts, experimenting with what to include, what to exclude, how to express your
ideas, and how to organize them.
Once you have a final draft and once you have read through it many times on your own, you can
decide if you would like to deliver it from the script you’ve written or whether you would like to
make an outline of the script and deliver your presentation from that.
If you decide to use a script...
Speak rather than read. Make sure you know the script inside and out, so that you can look up
from it and hear yourself talk rather than focusing on reading.
To help make sure you’re speaking rather than reading, make your script as reader-friendly as
possible. Be sure that the font is big enough for you to read easily. Double- or even triple-space
the text. Type or write on only one side of the page, and make sure to number the pages in case you
drop them.
Make it easy for yourself to navigate through the script; consider using bullet points, boldface,
underlining, or whatever other formatting techniques work for you. Make your transitional phrases
(link to transitional phrases on “constructing” page) easy to find. And mark your script to note
pauses, volume shifts, where to slow down, etc.
Practice multiple times to reduce your dependency on your script; alter your script as necessary
after practicing. Practice alone a few times to get comfortable, then practice in front of someone
who knows about your topic, and then try practicing in front of someone who’s not familiar with
your topic or discipline Keep in mind that you’re not trying to memorize the presentation. You’re
working to familiarize yourself with the script so that you don’t have to keep your eyes on it for the
entire length of your presentation.
Consider making a one-on-one appointment at the Writing Center, where you can deliver your
presentation and get feedback from a Writing Center instructor.
If you decide to use an outline...
Keep the outline very straightforward. Make sure that the print is large and easy to read, and
make sure to label sections well so that it’s easy for you to find your place. In general, your outline
should offer you a clear visual picture of your presentation’s structure.
Consider writing out full sentences for particularly important examples and transition
statements. Most presenters do not generally write out their sentences word-for-word in an outline,
but including full sentences at key points in your outline can help make sure you communicate your
most important ideas as clearly and persuasively as you want to, without having to memorize them
word-for-word.
Practice multiple times so that you have a very clear idea of what you’ll say for each entry on your
outline; add cues to your outline as necessary after practicing. Practice alone a few times to get
comfortable, then practice in front of someone who knows about your topic, and then try practicing
in front of someone who’s not familiar with your topic or discipline.
Consider making a one-on-one appointment at the Writing Center, where you can deliver your
presentation and get feedback from a Writing Center instructor.
How can I control my nerves during my presentation?
First, remember that it’s okay to feel nervous. Most presenters feel their stomachs flutter or their
palms sweat! Usually, however, your nerves are much more noticeable to you than they are to your
audience. Keep in mind that your audience is there because they’re interested in what you have to
say, and they want you to do well.
Find out as much as you can about what to expect during your presentation: the size of the
room, who will attend, how many audience members you’re likely to have, what those audience
members will be expecting, etc.
Practice, Practice, Practice! The more comfortable you are with your presentation, the less your
nerves will affect you.
Dress appropriately. It’s easier to feel (and be) professional if you look the part. As a rule of
thumb, avoid jeans, and wear something you’d wear to a formal job interview.
Keep the purpose of your presentation clear in your mind. Focus on your purpose rather than
on your anxiety.
Take a deep breath before you begin, and focus on friendly faces in the crowd.
What should I keep in mind about my voice?
Vary your pitch and volume as appropriate throughout your presentation, keeping in mind that this
kind of variation is one of the best ways to emphasize key points and keep audiences engaged. You
always need to project your voice, but you don’t always need to be loud. Work to keep your pitch
mostly in your lower register, especially if you’re a woman.
Remember to take big breaths. They will help you to keep a steady pace and to calm your nerves.
Don’t rush! Pay attention to how quickly you’re speaking. Too often, people try to fit 25 or 30
minutes of material into a 20-minute presentation, and the result is rushed and incomprehensible.
Watch your audience for signs of understanding or puzzlement, and make adjustments accordingly.
If you can, ask a friend or acquaintance to sit in the front or back row and signal if you’re speaking
too quickly.
Make sure you use pauses to your advantage. Brief, clearly intentional pauses of even a second
or two can cue the listener that something new or important is coming up. If a particular line or two
is important, consider speaking it at a distinctly slower pace.
Be conscious of the verbal tics—“um,” “aah,” “like,” “you know”—that you use to fill space. It
can be difficult to eliminate these completely, but being aware of them will help you to decrease
their prominence in your speech. When you’re practicing your presentation, ask a friend or
colleague to keep an accurate count of how many times you use these words and sounds, and try to
reduce that number over time.
What should I keep in mind about my body language?
Make sure that your posture communicates confidence and calmness. Don’t lean on the
podium, shift your weight from one foot to the other too often, hang onto the back of a chair, slouch
(especially if you’re sitting), continually cross and uncross your arms and/or legs, or stand ramrod
straight and motionless.
Make frequent eye contact with the audience. If strong eye contact is uncomfortable for you,
then at least look to the back of the room to create the illusion of eye contact.
If you’re using a microphone, be comfortable with how it works. Feel free to adjust the mic,
and don’t panic if it gives feedback while you’re adjusting it. Remember to keep your mouth close
to the microphone, especially if it’s a unidirectional mic. And be sure to ask the audience if they
can hear you.
Feel free to pause and take a quick drink of water if you need it, but don’t drink from a
carbonated beverage.
If I'm presenting with other people, how can I be a good
member of my panel?
Make sure you stay within your allotted time. If for some reason you find that you’re about to
run out of time, don’t stick to your original outline or script. Instead, briefly list the main points or
evidence that you would have covered and offer to elaborate during the Q&A.
While the other panelists present, make sure you listen and take notes; others may ask you to
respond or think about connections between all of the presentations.
Be sure that you don’t shuffle your papers or do anything else that might distract audience
members during the other panelists’ presentations.
How can I enhance my presentation with visual aids and
handouts?
Using props to help emphasize your points can be useful in an oral presentation. Props can be
generated from presentation software (like PowerPoint), paper handouts, and projected or
constructed visual aids.
What different options do I have for visual aids?
You have two main options for visual aids:

Paper handouts, or

Projected overheads or PowerPoint slides.
Handouts are more common in the humanities; overheads and PowerPoint are more common in the
sciences and social sciences, though these are not hard-and-fast distinctions. Check with your
mentor about what sorts of visual aids would work the best for your particular project.
In general, here are some pros and cons:
Type of Aid
Pros
Cons
Handouts...
help listeners follow your
main points.
can tempt audience members to
read ahead and stop paying
attention to what you’re saying.
can help you deal with long
but important quotes or data
sets.
can irritate your audience if you
don’t bring enough for everyone.
give people a space for taking
notes.
give people your name and
contact information to take
away.
Overheads or
PowerPoint
Slides...
help listeners follow your
main points.
can help you deal with long
but important quotes or data
sets.
allow you to control when
and for how long people see
the information, which helps
make sure that it doesn’t
distract from your speaking.
can cause anxiety if you’re not
comfortable using the equipment
or if the equipment is not present
or fails to work properly.
can be awkward to speak from
by tempting you to turn your
back to your audience as you
look at the projection screen.
allows everyone to see the
visual aid without your
having to worry about how
many people to expect.
Whichever type of visual aid you choose, remember that visual aids should complement your
presentation, not distract from it. Use handouts or overheads or slides with a clear purpose in
mind, not to “dress up” your presentation.
Remember, with visual aids, less is more!
How can I make sure I am using handouts effectively?
Be wary of giving too much information or too many distracting details; people will start
reading your handout and stop listening to you.
Plan carefully when you will distribute your handouts, and remember that it will take a couple
of minutes for the pages to circulate around the room.
Let your audience know how you will be using the handout: is it an outline, an important quote,
a presentation of data, or what? Refer to the handout while you speak, and be very clear about what
part of the handout you are referring to.
Leave plenty of space on the page for people to take notes.
Practice referring to the handout during your talk. Note in your script or outline where you want to
refer to the handout and what you want to say about it.
How can I make sure I am using overheads or PowerPoint effectively?
Don’t include too much information. Your visual aids should not simply list every point in your
presentation; they should emphasize your most important ideas and examples. Too much
information or too many details will distract your audience from what you’re saying.
Make sure your audience will be able to read and comprehend the projected information
quickly. Be careful about making text too small, including too much information on one overhead
or slide, etc.
Don’t move on to the next overhead or slide too early; audience members will automatically
begin reading the information on the aid and stop listening to you. Practice often, so that you know
exactly when to move to the next overhead or slide.
Don’t look back and read the information off the screen. You can refer to particular details with
a pointer if necessary, but have your outline or notes in front of you so that you don’t speak with
your back to the audience.
Practice referring to the overheads or slides during your presentation.
If you’re using PowerPoint, consider attending the Writing Center’s class on Writing with
PowerPoint.
What will the Question and Answer period be like?
The question and answer period is your chance to receive feedback about your work. It also offers
you the opportunity to show how much you know about your topic and how well you can think on
your feet. Here are some general tips:
Be patient while listening and courteous when answering.
Repeat the question to make sure everyone in the audience has heard it.
Respond to the entire audience, not just the questioner.
Keep your answers relatively brief. Stick to the question, and leave time for other questions.
How can I prepare for the Question and Answer period?
The best way to prepare is to practice delivering your presentation in front of a small audience
and asking them what kinds of questions the presentation raises for them. You can either use your
friends, roommates, or classmates, or you can sign up for a one-on-one appointment with a Writing
Center instructor (call 263-1992). Once you have an idea of what sorts of questions your listeners
might raise, you can begin to think about how you might answer them.
Similarly, you should ask your mentor for feedback about the kinds of questions you might
encounter.
Finally, refresh your memory about the larger project your presentation is based on. Make
sure the details are still clear in your mind, so that you’re able to draw on this broader information
to answer questions. Think about the information you left out or only mention briefly in your
presentation, and be able to talk about it if audience members ask.
What if I don’t understand the question?
Sometimes questions are very long, or they are phrased in ways that aren’t immediately clear. If
you’re not sure what someone is asking, don’t just pretend you do. Instead, rephrase the question
in your own words, saying something like:


“I’m not sure if I’m understanding your question correctly. Are you asking whether...” or
“Let me make sure I’m clear about what you’re asking. Are you interested in...”
Audience members appreciate this kind of clarification much more than a vague answer to a vague
question.
What if I understand the question but don’t have an answer for it?
Don’t panic! And don’t be afraid to repeat the question and then take a moment to think.
Often, an answer will come to you if you take a bit of time to consider the question. If it doesn’t,
though, here are some suggestions:
Be frank. You’re not expected to know everything, so if you don’t have an answer, say so. It’s
perfectly acceptable to say something like:

“That’s a really interesting question. I hadn’t quite thought about it that way, but I definitely
will as I keep working on this project. Thank you bringing it up.”
Answer a different (but related) question that you do have an answer for. Feel free to say
something like:

“I’ll have to keep thinking about that question, although I can tell you that...” This allows
you to acknowledge that you don’t have an answer to the question, while still allowing you
to display your knowledge about the topic.
Offer to chat with the person who asked the question after the panel is over. This would give
you the opportunity to learn more from the questioner about what he/she was thinking and have a
conversation about the ideas he/she has brought up in a less formal context, away from the rest of
the audience. Simply say something like:

“That’s a really interesting question. I hadn’t quite thought about it that way. Maybe we
could talk about it for a few minutes afterwards.”
Remember, the reason you’re presenting at a symposium is to get feedback and to make
connections with people who are interested in your work. Offering to extend the conversation
past the end of the panel is a great way to make these kinds of connections and receive in-depth
feedback about your work.
What if someone asks a question that’s not very relevant to my project or to the
topic of my panel?
Ask for more clarification. The person asking the question probably does see a connection
between the issue he/she has raised and the material you presented. Don’t feel like you have to read
his/her mind. Instead, ask something like:


“I don’t quite understand your question. Could you provide a bit more explanation about
how [the issue you raised] is related to my work?”
“I don’t quite understand your question. What part of my talk prompted you to think about
this issue?”
Once they have made the connection more explicit, you may very well be able to offer a satisfactory
answer. If you still aren’t sure how to answer, however, try one of the tips above, such as being
frank about your inability to answer, answering a different (but related) question that you do have
an answer for, or offering to chat in person after the panel is finished.
Writing Summaries

The goal of writing a summary of an article, a chapter, or a book is to offer as
accurately as possible the full sense of the original, but in a more condensed form. A
summary restates the author’s main point, purpose, intent, and supporting details i n
your own words.

The process of summarizing enables you to better grasp the original, and the result
shows the reader that you understand it as well. In addition, the knowledge gained
allows you to better analyze and critique the original.

First, try to find the main idea in the reading; it’s usually in the first paragraph. Next,
skim through the article, glancing at any headings and graphics. Then, read the
conclusion. The intent here is both to give yourself a review of the work and t o
effectively engage yourself with it.

Now go back and read the original text carefully, jotting down notes on or highlighting
the important points. Write the central idea and the author’s reasons (purpose and
intent) for holding this viewpoint. Note the supporting elements the author uses to
explain or back up her/his main information or claim.

Make an outline that includes the main idea and the supporting details. Arrange your
information in a logical order, for example, most to least important or chronological.
Your order need not be the same as that in the original, but keep related suppo rting
points together. The way you organize the outline may serve as a model for how you
divide and write the essay.

Write the summary, making sure to state the author’s name in the first sentence.
Present the main idea, followed by the supporting points. The remainder of your
summary should focus on how the author supports, defines, and/or illustrates that main
ide a. Remember, unless otherwise stated by your instructor, a summary should contain
only the author’s views, so try to be as objective as possible.

As you revise and edit your summary, compare it to the original and ask yourself
questions such as: Have I rephrased the author’s words without changing their
meaning? Have I restated the main idea and the supporting points accurately and in my
own words?

If you are asked to write a critical summary or to include a critique, you may want to
ask yourself questions such as: Does the author succeed? How and why or why not?
What are the strengths, weaknesses? Why? What did the author do well? Not well?
Why?
Writing a Summary: Guidelines
A good way to show your comprehension of what you have read it is to write a summary about the
text. When you write a summary, you want to condense the main ideas of an essay, a story, or an
article into 100 words or so, using all your own words and not quoting from the text. This sounds easy,
but actually, it is challenging to condense a long article or story into 100 words.
What do I need to do to write a summary successfully?
One of the most important things you need to be able to do is identify the major points of the article. If
you are summarizing a story, you need to be able to identify the major characters and actions of the
plot. You don't want to waste time and space discussing unimportant details. If you are summarizing
an article, you want to identify the author's thesis statement (overall main idea or point) of the article.
The next important thing you need to be able to do is restate the major points in your own words. This
means you shouldn't copy sentences from the article or story. Try to restate everything in your own
words.
Finally, when you summarize, you should not put in your own thoughts about the article or essay, nor
should you add any opinions. Think about the news broadcasters you watch on TV. They report the
news objectively, meaning they don't give their opinion of an event. In reporting, they summarize
news stories for the viewer. This is what you want to do for your reader. (When you write what is
called a response, you give your own opinions.)
Remember, when writing a summary you must tell the reader IN YOUR OWN WORDS what the article
is about. Any time you use someone else's words or ideas without giving them credit for those words
and ideas you are plagiarizing, which is a serious offense. If you want to include a small part of the
article into your summary, always put quotation marks (" ") around what you are copying directly.
(Avoid copying too much directly from the article. One short quote in a summary is enough.)
How to Write a Summary
Read, Reread, and Annotate the Material.
Carefully read the material, paying particular attention to the content and structure of the piece.
Reread and annotate the material. being sure to note:
the thesis;
the primary assertions, arguments, or findings; and
the primary means of support for each point.
Write One-Sentence Summaries of Each Section of the Text.
Identify the major sections of the reading, where the writer develops one idea before moving on
to the next. In your own words, restate the main point developed in each section of the text and
primary means of support the author provides.
Write the First Draft of Your Summary.
Introduce (in the first paragraph -- the introduction) the full title of the piece, the author's full
name, and the topic of the reading.
In the body of your summary, elaborate on the one sentence summaries, clearly explaining the
important content of the reading.
Check the Rough Draft of Your Summary against the Source Text.
As You Review Your Work, Make Sure Your Summary Is:
 Comprehensive: you have included in your summary all of the author’s important ideas,
assertions, or findings.
 Accurate: in choosing words and selecting material four your summary, you have not
misrepresented the author’s positions or findings.
 Neutral: in choosing words and selecting material for your summary, you have attempted to
be objective and fair.
 Independent: your summary will make sense to someone who has not read the source test.
Rewrite Your Summary.
Based on your evaluation of your rough draft, make any needed changes in the
content,organization, or language of your summary.
If you are writing an explanatory summary, include any transition words you need to guide your reader
through your work.
Sources:
Wilhoit, Stephen W. A Brief Guide to Writing from Readings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1997.
Glazier, Teresa F. The Least You Should Know about English. 4th ed. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and
Winston. 1994
ASSIGNMENT:
Summarise the following article three times, first into 200 words, then 100 words and finally into
50 words.
Hillary Clinton's legacy for women
By Molly Levinson
US political analyst
Hillary Clinton's dashed hopes for the presidency come hand in hand with a dashed piece of
history - it is not yet time for a woman to be President of the United States.
Her dwindling effort marks not only the end of a ferocious fight for the party's nod, but also the end
to a collective dream amongst many in a generation of women who have formed a large piece of
Mrs Clinton's support.
Her candidacy is a reminder that the ultimate glass ceiling remains intact.
Disappointment among older women voters is palpable.
Yet women ought not to be disappointed with Clinton's legacy.
During the course of her candidacy she all but took gender off the table as an impediment to
electability.
She cleared the way for other women
Susan Brophy
Political strategist and former Clinton administration official
Just take a look at polls over the past year and a half. In December 2006, only a little more than half
- 55% - of registered voters said that America was ready to elect a woman as president in a
Newsweek poll.
In the wake of Mrs Clinton's candidacy, in another poll conducted by Newsweek in April, almost
three-quarters of American voters - 70% - say the country is ready for a woman commander-inchief.
"She cleared the way for other women," says Susan Brophy, a former Clinton administration official
and partner at political strategy firm the Glover Park Group.
"She has made it easier for other women to run - she's been such a tough debater and such a great
candidate. She will make it easier for women in the future."
Political cocktail
The legacy that Clinton leaves for women is strengthened by the fact that she did not just win with
women.
Middle-class and blue-collar voters, white men and Hispanics aligned themselves with her as well,
to produce primary wins in states like California, Arizona, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and
Indiana.
A carefully crafted political cocktail - made with an unyielding and more hawkish position on the
war in Iraq than rival Barack Obama's, a trademark seriousness and lack of emotion, topped off with
a fierceness and strength during what became a brutal, dogged fight for the nomination - helped her
to convey an image that overcame concerns over her gender.
And yet, for many women, her gender remained an ultimate appeal.
"For older women voters, this is the first time that a woman had a real shot at the presidency someone who had the same experiences as they did, someone who embodied their hopes and
dreams and aspirations," says Anna Greenberg, pollster and Democratic political strategist.
Age often marked the dividing line between the women who supported Mrs Clinton and the women
who did not.
'Cynical and divisive'
Her core supporters were mostly older than 50, those who fought for and cheered on the rise of
feminism, women her own age.
To think that we'd vote for someone because they are a woman is too simplistic
Elisa Zuritsky
Writer and Obama supporter
Younger women, by contrast, were not as loyal to the potential first woman president.
Time and again, in places where Mrs Clinton needed their support - where each additional piece of
support would have meant a few more delegates, like Iowa, Maryland, Missouri , and Wisconsin young women under 50 voted for Barack Obama.
One thing is clear from their lack of support for the woman candidate: younger women do not feel
the same urgency to elect women that their mothers and grandmothers do.
Take, for example, 38-year-old former producer and writer for Sex and the City Elisa Zuritsky.
A Clinton supporter at the beginning of the campaign, Zuritsky is now an Obama enthusiast blaming what she calls Clinton's "cynical and divisive behaviour" during the course of the past
several months.
"To think that we'd vote for someone because they are a woman is too simplistic," she says.
"Maybe women of our generation have been spoiled by all the hard work that all the feminists did
before us. But they were successful, and whatever gripes we have are fairly muted.
"[Gender] has taken a back seat and I think it has been a show of progress that we can focus on
other things."
New politics
Greenberg says that, as a group, the young women who have supported Mr Obama were not casting
anti-Clinton votes, but rather embracing the vision he put forward.
"This is about being inspiring, forward-looking, talking about the future, and speaking in a language
that appealed to them," she says.
"Clinton's deliberate attempt to talk about experience didn't appeal to them."
Mrs Clinton's legacy is hardly set in stone. Her seat in the US Senate is safe and she has years to
continue her work, and to build her image as a senior legislator.
As for whether she will run for president again, those who have watched her career and worked for
her over the years think it is unlikely. But speculation about a possible Vice-Presidential slot on the
Obama ticket, or even a cabinet post, continues.
There are no women waiting in the wings who have the same aura of inevitability that Mrs Clinton
had before her bid.
But perhaps, given what we have learned about young women voters' eagerness to embrace a new
kind of politics in the course of this campaign, that bodes well for the next woman who wants to
take a shot at the White House.
It may be decades from now or it could happen in just a matter of years, but whenever it does
happen, she will be better off because of Hillary Clinton.
Molly Levinson is a political analyst and former CBS News Political Director
Story from BBC NEWS:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/americas/7410751.stm
Published: 2008/06/06 11:14:38 GMT
Verb Tenses
There are 12 verb tenses in English. The verb action can take place in the past
the present or the future. There are usually word clues that give a guide as to
when the verb action occurs. Within each of these times there are four different
situations that occur. Simple tenses occur at a point in time, or on a repeated or
habitual basis. A progressive or continuous tense indicates that the action takes
place over time and these tenses always use part of the verb “be” as the first part
of the verb phrase and end with the main verb + ing. A perfect tense always uses
part of “have” as the first part of the verb phrase and ends with the past form of
the main verb. A perfect progressive tense starts with the relevant part of the
verb “have” followed by “been” and ends with the main verb + ing. If you
remember these basic rules, you can always identify the verb tense being used,
or use the verb tense you need without having to continually refer to a text book
or table. Meanwhile, a chart like the one given here, can provide a quick and
easy reference until you feel comfortable using the various verb tenses. Also pay
attention to the time clues in the following chart; while some of them can be
used with more than one verb tense, they do restrict the number of possibilities
and help you to understand which verb tense is being used, or which verb tense
you should use.
Chart—Active Verb Tenses
Past
Simple
(time clue)*
Present
Future
An action that ended at a
point in the past.
An action that exists , is
usual, or is repeated.
A plan for future action.
cooked
cook / cooks
will cook
e.g. He cooked yesterday.
e.g. He cooks dinner
every Friday.
e.g. He will cook
tomorrow.
An action that is
happening now.
An action that will be
happening over time, in
the future, when
something else happens.
am / is / are cooking
will be cooking
An action was happening
Progressive
be + main verb (past progressive) when
+ing
another action happened
(simple past).
was / were cooking
(time clue)*
e.g. He was cooking when e.g. He is cooking now.
the phone rang.
Perfect
have + main
verb
An action that ended
before another action or
time in the past.
An action that happened An action that will end
at an unspecified time in before another action or
the past.
time in the future.
had cooked
has / have cooked
e.g. He had cooked the
dinner when the phone
rang.
e.g. He has cooked many e.g. He will have cooked
meals.
dinner by the time you
come.
(time clue)*
e.g. He will be cooking
when you come.
will have cooked
Perfect
Progressive
have + be +
main verb + ing
An action that happened
over time, in the past,
before another time or
action in the past.
An action occurring over
time that started in the
past and continues into
the present.
An action occurring over
time, in the future, before
another action or time in
the future.
had been cooking
has / have been cooking will have been cooking
(time clue)*
e.g. He had been cooking e.g. He has been cooking e.g. He will have been
for a long time before he
for over an hour.
cooking all day by the
took lessons.
time she gets home.
*Time clues: these are words that give some information about when an action occurs. Some
examples are:
yesterday
every day
tomorrow
while
now
simple past
simple present
simple future
past progressive
present progressive
.
There are many words that are time clues; some can be used to indicate a
number of tenses, for instance that something happened in the past or that it will
happen in the future. If you learn to recognize these time clues, you will find
them very helpful. Note that some time clues can be used with more than one
verb tense and also that this table is not a complete listing of all the time clues
that can be used with all of the tenses
Chart—Time Clues and Verb Tense
Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Past
Present
Future
Simple Past
Simple Present
Simple Future
yesterday
last year/ month/ etc.
before
for five
weeks/days/etc.
one year/ month ago
every morning / day / etc.
always
usually
frequently
sometimes
tomorrow
tonight
next week/month/etc.
soon
in the future
Past Progressive
Present Progressive
Future progressive
while
when
now
right now
this week/minute/etc.
when
after
as soon as
before
Past Perfect
Present Perfect
Future Perfect
before
already
by the time
until then/last
week/etc.
until now
since
ever
never
many times/
by the time you go
(somewhere)
by the time you do
(something)
already
Perfect
Progressive
after
weeks/years/etc.
for three hours/
minutes/etc/
Past Perfect
progressive
Present Perfect
Progressive
Future Perfect
Progressive
before
for one
week/hour/etc.
since
for the past year/ month/
etc.
for the last 2 months/
weeks/etc.
up to now
for 6 weeks/hours/etc.
since
by the time
for ten days/weeks/etc.
by
Principal parts
A regular English verb has only one principal part, the infinitive or dictionary form (which is
identical to the simple present tense for all persons and numbers except the third person singular).
All other forms of a regular verb can be derived straightforwardly from the infinitive, for a total of
four forms (e.g. exist, exists, existed, existing)
English irregular verbs (except to be) have at most three principal parts:
Part
Example
1 infinitive
write
2 preterite
wrote
3 past participle written
Strong verbs like write have all three distinct parts, for a total of five forms (e. g. write, writes,
wrote, written, writing). The more irregular weak verbs also require up to three forms to be learned.
The highly irregular copular verb to be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been, of
which only one is derivable from a principal part (being is derived from be). On the history of this
verb, see Indo-European copula.
Verbs had more forms when the pronoun thou was still in regular use and there was a number
distinction in the second person. To be, for instance, had art, wast and wert.
Most of the strong verbs that survive in modern English are considered irregular. Irregular verbs in
English come from several historical sources; some are technically strong verbs (i. e. their forms
display specific vowel changes of the type known as ablaut in linguistics); others have had various
phonetic changes or contractions added to them over the history of English.
See also: Wiktionary appendix: Irregular English verbs
Infinitive and basic form
Formation
The infinitive in English is the naked root form of the word. When it is being used as a verbal noun,
the particle to is usually prefixed to it. When the infinitive stands as the predicate of an auxiliary
verb, to may be omitted, depending on the requirements of the idiom.
Uses

The infinitive, in English, is one of two verbal nouns: To write is to learn.

The infinitive, either marked with to or unmarked, is used as the complement of many
auxiliary verbs: I will write a novel about talking beavers; I am really going to write it.

The basic form also forms the English imperative mood: Write these words.

The basic form makes the English subjunctive mood: If you write it, they will read.
Third person singular
Formation
The third person singular in regular verbs in English is distinguished by the suffix -s. In English
spelling, this -s is added to the stem of the infinitive form: run → runs.
If the base ends in a sibilant sound like /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ (see help:Pronunciation) that is not followed
by a silent E, the suffix is written -es: buzz → buzzes; catch → catches.
If the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to an i and -es is affixed to the end: cry →
cries.
Verbs ending in o typically add -es: veto → vetoes.
The third person singular present indicative in English is notable cross-linguistically for being a
morphologically marked form for a semantically unmarked one. That is to say the third person
singular is usually taken to be the most basic form in a given verbal category and as such, according
to markedness theory, should have the simplest of forms in its paradigm. This is clearly not the case
with English where the other persons exhibit the bare root and nothing more.
In Early Modern English, some dialects distinguished the third person singular with the suffix -th;
after consonants this was written -eth, and some consonants were doubled when this was added: run
→ runneth.
Usage

The third person singular is used exclusively in the third person form of the English simple
"present tense", which often has other uses besides the simple present: He writes airport
novels about anthropomorphic rodents.
Exception
English preserves a number of preterite-present verbs, such as can and may. These verbs lack a
separate form for the third person singular: she can, she may. All surviving preterite-present verbs
in modern English are auxiliary verbs. The verb will, although historically not a preterite-present
verb, has come to be inflected like one when used as an auxiliary; it adds -s in the third person
singular only when it is a full verb: Whatever she wills to happen will make life annoying for
everyone else.
Present participle
Formation
The present participle is made by the suffix -ing: go → going.
If the base ends in silent e, it is dropped before adding the suffix: believe → believing.
If the e is not silent, it is retained: agree → agreeing.
If the base ends in -ie, change the ie to y and add -ing: lie → lying.
If:



the base form ends in a single consonant; and
a single vowel precedes that consonant; and
the last syllable of the base form is stressed
then the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix: set → setting; occur → occurring.
In British English, as an exception, the final <l> is subject to doubling even when the last syllable is
not stressed: yodel → yodelling, travel → travelling; in American English, these follow the rule:
yodeling, traveling.
Irregular forms include:

singeing, where the e is (sometimes) not dropped to avoid confusion with singing;



ageing, in British English, where the expected form aging is ambiguous as to whether it has
a hard or soft g;
words ending in -c, which add k before the -ing, for example, trafficking, panicking,
frolicking, and bivouacking.
a number of words that are subject to the doubling rule even though they do not fall squarely
within its terms, such as diagramming, kidnapping, programming, and worshipping.
Uses

The present participle is another English verbal noun: Writing is learning (see gerund for
this sense).

It is used as an adjective: a writing desk; building beavers.

It is used to form a past, present or future tense with progressive or imperfective force: He is
writing another long book about beavers.

It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: He tried writing about opossums
instead, but his muse deserted him.
Preterite
Formation
In weak verbs, the preterite is formed with the suffix -ed: work → worked.
If the base ends in e, -d is simply added to it: hone → honed; dye > dyed.
Where the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to i before the -ed is added; deny →
denied.
Where the base ends in a vowel plus y, the y is retained: alloy → alloyed.
The rule for doubling the final consonant in regular weak verbs for the preterite is the same as the
rule for doubling in the present participle; see above.
Many strong verbs and other irregular verbs form the preterite differently, for which see that article.
Use

The preterite is used for the English simple (non-iterative or progressive) past tense. He
wrote two more chapters about the dam at Kashagawigamog Lake.
Past participle
Formation
In regular weak verbs, the past participle is always the same as the preterite.
Irregular verbs may have separate preterites and past participles; see Wiktionary appendix: Irregular
English verbs.
Uses

The past participle is used with the auxiliary have for the English perfect tenses: They have
written about the slap of tails on water, about the scent of the lodge... (With verbs of motion,
an archaic form with be may be found in older texts: he is come.)

With be, it forms the passive voice: It is written so well, you can feel what it is like to gnaw
down trees!

It is used as an adjective: the written word; a broken dam.

It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: five hundred thousand words got
written in record time.
Tenses
English verbs, like those in many other western European languages, have more tenses than forms;
tenses beyond the ones possible with the five forms listed above are formed with auxiliary verbs, as
are the passive voice forms of these verbs. Important auxiliary verbs in English include will, used to
form the future tense; shall, formerly used mainly for the future tense, but now used mainly for
commands and directives; be, have, and do, which are used to form the supplementary tenses of the
English verb, to add aspect to the actions they describe, or for negation.
English verbs display complex forms of negation. While simple negation was used well into the
period of early Modern English (Touch not the royal person!) in contemporary English negation
almost always requires that the negative particle be attached to an auxiliary verb such as do or be. I
go not is archaic; I do not go or I am not going are what the contemporary idiom requires.
English exhibits similar idiomatic complexity with the interrogative mood, which in Indo-European
languages is not, strictly speaking, a mood. Like many other Western European languages, English
historically allowed questions to be asked by inverting the position of verb and subject: Whither
goest thou? Now, in English, questions are often trickily idiomatic, and require the use of auxiliary
verbs, though occasionally, the interrogative mood is still used in Modern English.
Overview of tenses
In English grammar, tense refers to any conjugated form expressing time, aspect or mood. The large
number of different composite verb forms means that English has the richest and subtlest system of
tense and aspect of any Germanic language. This can be confusing for foreign learners; however,
the English verb is in fact very systematic once one understands that in each of the three time
spheres - past, present and future - English has a basic tense which can then be made either perfect
or progressive (continuous) or both.
Simple
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect progressive
Future I will write I will be writing I will have written I will have been writing
Present I write
I am writing
I have written
I have been writing
Past
I wrote
I was writing
I had written
I had been writing
Because of the neatness of this system, modern textbooks on English generally use the terminology
in this table. What was traditionally called the "perfect" is here called "present perfect" and the
"pluperfect" becomes "past perfect", in order to show the relationships of the perfect forms to their
respective simple forms. Whereas in other Germanic languages, or in Old English, the "perfect" is
just a past tense, the English "present perfect" has a present reference; it is both a past tense and a
present tense, describing the connection between a past event and a present state.
However, historical linguists sometimes prefer terminology which applies to all Germanic
languages and is more helpful for comparative purposes; when describing wrote as a historical
form, for example, we would say "preterite" rather than "past simple".
This table, of course, omits a number of forms which can be regarded as additional to the basic
system:

the intensive present I do write








the intensive past I did write
the habitual past I used to write
the "shall future" I shall write
the "going-to future" I am going to write
the "future in the past" I was going to write
the conditional I would write
the perfect conditional I would have written
the subjunctive, if I be writing, if I were writing.
Some systems of English grammar eliminate the future tense altogether, treating will/would simply
as modal verbs, in the same category as other modal verbs such as can/could and may/might. See
Grammatical tense for a more technical discussion of this subject.
Present simple
Or simple present.
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Affirmative: I write; He writes
Negative: He does not write
Interrogative: Does he write?
Negative interrogative: Does he not write?
Note that the "simple present" in idiomatic English often identifies habitual or customary action:
He writes about beavers (understanding that he does so all of the time.)
It is used with stative verbs:
She thinks that beavers are remarkable
It can also have a future meaning (though much less commonly than in many other languages):
She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesday.
The present simple has an intensive or emphatic form with "do": He does write. In the negative and
interrogative forms, of course, this is identical to the non-emphatic forms. It is typically used as a
response to the question Does he write, whether that question is expressed or implied, and says that
indeed, he does write.
The different syntactic behavior of the negative particle not and the negative inflectional suffix -n't
in the interrogative form is also worth noting. In formal literary English of the sort in which
contractions are avoided, not attaches itself to the main verb: Does he not write? When the
colloquial contraction -n't is used, this attaches itself to the auxiliary do: Doesn't he write? This in
fact is a contraction of a more archaic word order, still occasionally found in poetry: *Does not he
write?
Present progressive
Or present continuous.
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Affirmative: He is writing
Negative: He is not writing
Interrogative: Is he writing?
Negative interrogative: Is he not writing?
This form describes the simple engagement in a present activity, with the focus on action in
progress "at this very moment". It too can indicate a future, particularly when discussing plans
already in place: I am flying to Paris tomorrow. Used with "always" it suggests irritation; compare
He always does that (neutral) with He is always doing that (and it annoys me). Word order differs
here in the negative interrogative between the more formal is he not writing and the colloquial
contraction isn't he writing?
Present perfect
Traditionally just called the perfect.
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Affirmative: He has written
Negative: He has not written
Interrogative: Has he written?
Negative interrogative: Has he not written?
This indicates that a past event has one of a range of possible relationships to the present. This may
be a focus on present result: He has written a very fine book (and look, here it is, we have it now).
Or it may indicate a time-frame which includes the present. I have lived here since my youth (and I
still do). Compare: Have you written a letter this morning? (it is still morning) with Did you write a
letter this morning? (it is now afternoon). The perfect tenses are frequently used with the adverbs
already or recently or with since clauses. Although the label “perfect tense” implies a completed
action, the present perfect can identify habitual (I have written letters since I was ten years old.) or
continuous (I have lived here for fifteen years.) action.
In addition to these normal uses where the time frame either is the present or includes the present,
the “have done” construct is used in temporal clauses to define a future time: When you have
written it, show it to me. It also forms a perfect infinitive, used when infinitive constructions require
a past perspective: Mozart is said to have written his first symphony at the age of eight. (Notice that
if not for the need of an infinitive, the simple past would have been used here: He wrote it at age
eight.) The past infinitive is also used in the conditional perfect.
Present perfect progressive
Or continuous.
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Affirmative: He has been writing
Negative: He has not been writing
Interrogative: Has he been writing?
Negative interrogative: Has he not been writing?
Used for unbroken action in the past which continues right up to the present. I have been writing
this paper all morning (and still am).
Present Perfect Continuous is used for denoting the action which was in progress and has just
finished (a) or is still going on (b). For example,
a) Why are your eyes red? – I have been crying since morning. (The action has already
finished but was in progress for some time)
b) She has been working here for two years already and she is happy. (The action is still in
progress).
If we have to ask a question with “How long..?” we should use the present perfect continuous. For
example,
How long have you been working here?
But with stative words (such as see, want, like, etc), or if the situation is considered permanent, we
should use the present perfect simple. For example,
I have known her since childhood.
If we talk about the whole period of time, we use “for” and when we talk about the starting point of
the action, we use “since”.
We should not use the present simple tense for denoting actions that began in the past and are still
going on. For example,
I am ill since Monday. (It is not correct).
I have been ill since Monday. (It is correct).
Past simple
Or preterite. In older textbooks often called the imperfect.
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Affirmative: He wrote
Negative: He did not write
Interrogative: Did he write?
Negative interrogative: Did he not write?
The same change of word order in the negative interrogative that distinguishes the formal and
informal register also applies to the preterite. Note also that the preterite form is also used only in
the affirmative. When the sentence is recast as a negative or interrogative, he wrote not and wrote
he? are archaic and not used in modern English. They must instead be supplied by periphrastic
forms.
This tense is used for a single event in the past, sometimes for past habitual action, and in
chronological narration. Like the present simple, it has emphatic forms with "do": he did write.
Although it is sometimes taught that the difference between the present perfect and the simple past
is that the perfect denotes a completed action whereas the past denotes an incomplete action, this
theory is clearly false. Both forms are normally used for completed actions. (Indeed the English
preterite comes from the Proto-Indo-European perfect.) And either can be used for incomplete
actions. The real distinction is that the present perfect is used when the time frame either is the
present or includes the present, whereas the simple past is used when the time frame is in the
absolute past.
The "used to" past tense for habitual actions is probably best included under the bracket of the past
simple. Compare:
When I was young I played football every Saturday.
When I was young I used to play football every Saturday.
The difference is slight, but "used to" stresses the fact that the action has been discontinued.
Past continuous
Or imperfect or past progressive.
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Affirmative: He was writing
Negative: He was not writing
Interrogative: Was he writing?
Negative interrogative: Was he not writing?
This is typically used for two events in parallel:
While I was washing the dishes my wife was walking the dog.
Or for an interrupted action (the past simple being used for the interruption):
While I was washing the dishes I heard a loud noise.
Or when we are focusing on a point in the middle of a longer action:
At three o'clock yesterday I was working in the garden. (Contrast: I worked in the garden all
day yesterday.)
Past perfect
Or the "pluperfect"
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Affirmative: He had written
Negative: He had not written
Interrogative: Had he written?
Negative interrogative: Had he not written?
Past perfect progressive
Or "pluperfect progressive" or "continuous"
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Affirmative: He had been writing
Negative: He had not been writing
Interrogative: Had he been writing?
Negative interrogative: Had he not been writing?
Relates to the past perfect much as the present perfect progressive relates to the present perfect, but
tends to be used with less precision.
Future simple
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Affirmative: He will write
Negative: He will not write
Interrogative: Will he write?
Negative interrogative: Will he not write?
See the article Shall and Will for a discussion of the two auxiliary verbs used to form the simple
future in English. There is also a future with "go" which is used especially for intended actions, and
for the weather, and generally is more common in colloquial speech:
I am going to write a book some day.
I think that it is going to rain.
But the will future is preferred for spontaneous decisions:
Jack: "I think that we should have a barbecue!"
Jill: "Good idea! I shall go get the coal."
The will future is also used for statements about the present to indicate that they are speculative:
Jack: "I haven't eaten a thing all day."
Jill: "Well, I suppose you'll be hungry now."
Jack: "There's a woman coming up the drive."
Jill: "That'll be my mother."
Future progressive
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Affirmative: He will be writing
Negative: He will not be writing
Interrogative: Will he be writing?
Negative interrogative: Will he not be writing?
Used especially to indicate that an event will be in progress at a particular point in the future: This
time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.
Future perfect
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Affirmative: He will have written
Negative: He will not have written
Interrogative: Will he have written?
Negative interrogative: Will he not have written?
Used for something which will be completed by a certain time (perfect in the literal sense) or which
leads up to a point in the future which is being focused on.
I will have finished my essay by Thursday.
By then she will have been there for three weeks.
Future perfect progressive
Or future perfect continuous.
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Affirmative: He will have been writing
Negative: He will not have been writing
Interrogative: Will he have been writing?
Negative interrogative: Will he not have been writing?
Conditional
Or past subjunctive.
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Affirmative: He would write
Negative: He would not write
Interrogative: Would he write?
Negative interrogative: Would he not write?
Used principally in a main clause accompanied by an implicit or explicit doubt or "if-clause"; may
refer to conditional statements in present or future time:
I would like to pay now if it is not too much trouble. (in present time; doubt of possibility is
explicit)
I would like to pay now. (in present time; doubt is implicit)
I would do it if she asked me. (in future time; doubt is explicit)
I would do it. (in future time; doubt is implicit)
(A very common error by foreign learners is to put the would into the if-clause itself. A humorous
formulation of the rule for the EFL classroom runs: "If and would you never should, if and will
makes teacher ill!" But of course, both will and would CAN occur in an if-clause when expressing
volition. A student of English may rarely encounter the incorrect construction as it can occur as an
archaic form.)
Conditional perfect
Or pluperfect subjunctive/past-perfect subjunctive.
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Affirmative: He would have written
Negative: He would not have written
Interrogative: Would he have written?
Negative interrogative: Would he not have written?
Used as the past tense of the conditional form; expresses thoughts which are or may be contrary to
present fact:
I would have set an extra place if I had known you were coming. (fact that an extra place was
not set is implicit; conditional statement is explicit)
I would have set an extra place, but I did not because Mother said you were not coming. (fact
that a place was not set is explicit; conditional is implicit)
I would have set an extra place. (fact that a place was not set is implicit, conditional is
implicit)
Conditional perfect progressive
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Affirmative: He would have been writing
Negative: He would not have been writing
Interrogative: Would he have been writing?
Negative interrogative: Would he not have been writing?
Present subjunctive
The form is always identical to the infinitive. This means that, apart from the verb "to be", it is
distinct only in the third person singular and the obsolete second person singular.
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Indicative: I write, thou writest, he writes, I am
Subjunctive: I write, thou write, he write, I be
Used to refer to situations which are or may be contrary to fact in the present or future; the
infactuality is rarely explicit:
I insist that he come at once. (present time; fact that the action is not currently occurring is
implicit)
I insist that he come when I call. (future time; fact that the action may or may not occur is
implicit)
(The present subjunctive is often interchangeable with the past subjunctive like so: I insist that he
must come at once.)
Imperfect subjunctive
The use of the old term "imperfect" shows that this form is so rare that it has not been integrated
into the modern system of English tense classification. The imperfect subjunctive is identical to the
past simple in every verb except the verb "to be". With this verb, there is an option, but no longer a
necessity, of using were throughout all forms (i.e., I wish I were an Oscar Meyer wiener, vs. I wish I
was a girl).
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Indicative: I was
Traditional Subjunctive: I were
Colloquial Subjunctive: I was
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If I were rich, I would retire to the South of France.