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Applications of inulin and probiotics in health and
nutrition
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International Food Research Journal 19(4): 1337-1350 (2012)
Journal homepage:
http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my
Mini Review
Applications of inulin and probiotics in health and nutrition
Miremadi, F. and *Shah, N. P.
School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Victoria University, Werribee Campus, P.O.
Box 14428, Victoria 8001, Australia
Received: 6 October 2011 Received in revised form: 3 January 2012
Accepted:3 January 2012
Prebioticsprobioticssynbiotic
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internal health
Interest
in
consumption
of
prebiotics
and
probiotics
to
improve
human
gastrointestinal health is increasing. Consumption of beneficial probiotic bacteria
combined with oligosaccharides may enhance colonic bacterial composition and improve
internal health.
The objectives of this article are to review existing literature
concerning the effect of synbiotic foods on the composition and activity of the
colonic
microbiota,
and
http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlefficiency
of
functional
attributes of synbiotic foods in formulation and development of new dairy products.
? All Rights Reserved
Introduction
It is well documented that the large intestine is one of the most densely populated
ecosystem in nature consisting of over 500-1,000 different species of bacteria (Xu
and Gordon, 2003; Meyer and Stasse-Wolthuis, 2009) of which bifidobacteria are
generally considered to be health promoting and beneficial (Kimura et al., 1997).
The equilibrium of the ecosystem is dynamic and may be negatively affected by aging,
daily diet and other environmental factors (Collins and Gibson, 1999). It is believed
that the maintenance of the gastro-intestinal bacterial population, which mainly
contains beneficial species, is important for overall gastro-intestinal health and
wellbeing (Crittenden, 1999). Recently, research has focused on the ability of
probiotic
bacteria
to
prebihttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlotics
ferment
and
produce
short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) which is thought to be beneficial to gut health
(Collins and Gibson, 1999; Kaur and Gupta, 2002). Prebiotics are non-digestible food
ingredients that pass through the upper gut unchanged and are selectively fermented
by colonic bacteria (Ramirez-Farias et al., 2009). This leads to specific changes
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in the composition and activity of the gut microbiota that confers benefits upon host
health (Cummings et al., 2001). The dietary fructans are particularly well studied
prebiotics as they have the potential to increase bifidobacterial population in the
colon without being utilized by other intestinal bacteria (Roberfroid et al.,
*Corresponding author.
Email: [email protected]
1998; Gibson et al., 2004; Macfarlane et al., 2006). Major classes of dietary fructans
found in higher plants include inulin, levan, and graminan (Chalmers et al., 2005),
with inulin beinghttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html significant
by its unique molecular structure, which confirms the bifidogenic effect of inulin
as a functional food ingredient. Inulin naturally occurs in several plant foods
including onion, garlic, chicory, artichoke and leek (Gibson et al., 1994). Inulin
is composed of a series of oligo- and polysaccharides of fructose with (2→1) linkages,
where the terminal sugar in most chains is glucose. The configuration of the anomeric
C2 in fructose monomers prevents fructans from digestion and this is responsible for
its reduced caloric value and dietary fibre effects (Coussement, 1996; Kaur and Gupta,
2002). Some of the functional effects of inulin in the gastro-intestinal tract include
modulation of microbial fermentation, reducing fat and cholesterol absorption, and
pH reduction; these therefore have a direct effect on reducing intestinal
disturbances, constipation, hyperlipidaemia, hyperglycemia and intestinal cancer
(Ziemer and Gibson,http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html 1998; Kaur
and Gupta, 2002). This review presents an overview of the effects of prebiotic and
probiotic combination on the composition and activity of the colonic bacterial flora,
and discusses about functional attributes of synbiotic foods in development of new
dairy products.Biomarkers for gut health
The gut flora are the micro-organisms that
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1338Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-1350
normally live in the digestive tract and can perform a number of useful functions
for their hosts. human cells, but has about ten times more than that number body
consists of about 10 The average 13 (ten trillion) of microbial cells in the gut (Kaur
and Gupta, 2002; Meyer and Stasse-Wolthuis, 2009). Different studies have confirmed
the significant role of gut microflora in human health through their ability to
ferment unused energy substrate, improve the immune system, digest food ingredients,
prevent
growth
of
harmful
specihttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmles
and
produce
vitamins(such as Biotin and vitamin K) for the host (Kolida and Gibson, 2007).
of The colon is the most heavily populated part 500-1,000 the gastro-intestinal tract,
consisting of over Gordon, different species of bacteria (Xu and and 2003;
Lopez-Molina et al., 2005; Meyer can Stasse-Wolthuis, Lactobacillusbe divided into
2009).
three
categories
clostridiabacteria,
The
intestinal
including
bacteria
a)
pathogenic
and Bifidobacterium; b) potentially which (Gibson, may , and
c) other bacteria such as bacteroides, such as certain species of have both positive
and negative effects assumed that 2004; Lopez-Molina et al., 2005). primarily
carbohydrate-fermenting bacteria; whereas Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus It are
is Bacteroidesand Wolthuis, 2009).
amino
The
and acid Clostridiumfermenting
first
part
of
the
colon
are mainly proteolytic (Meyes and Stasse-for
is
mostly
responsible
by
fermenting
substanchttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmles starch, the host in
the upper that gut cannot (such be as digested resistant oligosaccharides),
non-digestible colon (Kolida and Gibson, 2007). The two main types of proteins and
while carbohydrates amino in acids the lower like are broken part inulin of and down
the fermentation saccharolytic and proteolytic (De Preter that are carried out in
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the colon Saccharolytic fermentation is more preferred to the et al., 2011). are host
than proteolytic because of the types of metabolic end products (Kilda and Gibson,
2007; De Preter alfermentation in the colon is the generation of short-., 2011). The
main end product of carbohydrate et chain propionate, and butyrate (Topping and
Clifton, 2001; fatty acids (SCFA), predominantly acetate, De Preter the intestinal
bacteria are absorbed and metabolized, et al., 2011). Most of the SCFA formed by
thereby Acetate contributing muscle is metabolized towards in a systemic the host
area energy such gahttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlin. as
(ATP), whereas propionate can be transported to the and used to produce
adenosine-5’-triphosphate liver source for gluconeogenesis. Butyrate is an
important tumour of energy for the colonocytes and has anti-stimulates cell
differentiation in epithelial cell lines
properties. It inhibits cell proliferation and of neoplastic origina et more
Increased acidic SCFA
in vitro environment synthesis (De Preter in in the the et
algut colon ., 2011).
(Scheppach creates resistance al., 2001) which enhances the colonization et bile al.,
against pathogenic bacteria (Topping carcinogenesis acids 2003), which reduces has
the been formation implicated of in secondary colonic et enzymes such as proteases
(Macfarlane al., 2004) and (Nagengasti impairs the et activity al., 1988; of Zampa
Furthermore, anti-inflammatory capacities affect satiety hormones SCFAs have been
shown
et
alto
.,
1998).
specific
possess
and
play
a
role
in
ihttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlnsulin resistance. A role for
SCFA in prevention of some human pathological conditions such has been presumed
although conclusive evidence is as ulcerative colitis and colon carcinogenesis still
lacking.
by Therefore, saccharolytic fermentation of inulin in their numbers, thus shifting
in the gut microbiota Bifidobacteria spp. in the gut will result in increase balance
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towards a ‘healthier’ composition. However, it biomarker cannot provide explicit
proof of a health is important to note that alterations in a single benefit or reduced
risk of disease and more consistent data on various gut biomarkers and their effects
on gut 2009).
health is required (Meyer and Stasse-Wolthuis Synbiotic foods
probiotics and prebiotics that beneficially affects the Synbiotic food is defined
as “a mixture of host by 1) improving the survival and implantation of live microbial
dietary
supplements
in
the
gastro-intestinal
growth
http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlhealth-promoting
bacteria,
and thus improving host and tract, activity and of 2) one selectively or a limited
stimulating number the of health and welfare” (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995). The
functional food sector as the combination of probiotics synbiotic concept is a
promising trend in the and individual prebiotics may confer greater benefits to using
prebiotic would benefit the survival of ingredients. It is expected that adding during
the shelf life of the dairy products (Lourens-bifidobacteria Hattingh and Viljoen,
2001). The effect of synbiotics on demonstrated faecal microflora aerobes, by
increasing of experimental animals is decreasing lactobacilliEscherichia coli in
Clostridia, and the total anaerobes, , bifidobacteriaEnterobacteriaceae counts
and
and et reported an overall increase in faecal bifidobacterial al., 2001). In counts
in the colon of rats (Suskovic humans, Bouhnik et al. (1996) numbers in healthy
volunteers
aftehttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlr
the
consumption of synbiotic mix of inulin and Kiebling et al. (2002) also observed
Bifidobacteriumthe significant
spp.
Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-13501339
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decrease long-term in acidophilus consumption LDL/HDL of cholesterol synbiotic
ratios yoghurt after (previous observation of Schaafsma and B. longum plus inulin),
similar to the L. combination Synbiotic products often are et alcomposed . (1998).
and (Lourens-Hattingh lactulose of inulin-type in conjunction fructans, of a with
bifidobacteria, lactobacilli only probiotic limited variety and of synbiotic Viljoen,
2001). products Currently, such as the market. Future market of synbiotic foods not
only yoghurt and dairy drinks are available in depends on their effectiveness on human
health but also the increase of consumers’ awareness about the consumption of these
products.
A review of probiotics and prebiotics
interest, byhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html both consumers
and food manufactures in
Over the last 20 years, there has been a significant the
production and consumption of prebiotics in daily diet consumers are becoming more
aware of maintaining (O’Sullivan, 2001; Bruno and Shah, 2004) as their ‘internal
health’ by modifying gastro-intestinal microflora. which when administered in
adequate amounts in the Probiotics are ‘live micro-organisms’ diet, deliver health
benefits to the host (Fuller, 1991; Bruno to and Shah, 2004). Probiotic in the
gastro-intestinal track and improve the balance suppress potentially pathogenic
bacteria micro-organisms are able in and favour of beneficial micro-organisms the
probiotic approach on the gastro-intestinal health Bezkorovainy, 1993). The
beneficial impact (Ibrahim of can be defined by provision of the protection against
diet-related diseases (Fuller, 1991; Bruno and Shah, 2004).
composed
of
a
complex
ecosystem
of
anaerobic
and
The
hhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmluman gastro-intestinal tract
(GIT) is aerobic of which the large intestine contains over a hundred micro-organisms
(Bruno and Shah, 2004), distinct strains of anaerobic bacteria (>10 11gram of colonic
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content) (Gibson and Shah, 2004). et al CFU per are improving the gastro-intestinal
health (Bruno believed to have Among these bacteria, bifidobacteria ., 1994; Bruno
the most beneficial effects for 2002). et al., functions Bifidobacteriabacteria by
can improve the host immune perfrigenssuch suppression as Escherichia the
coliactivity
and of harmful GIT and against
(Yaeshima et al., 1997) and Clostridium
protect the Bifidobacteria are consumed as a part of fermented carcinogenic colon
factors tumourigenesis (Singh et by almutagenic ., 1997).
foods supplements. Some
previous studies have shown that such as yoghurt, soy yoghurt, or as dietary dairy
products may not be an ideal medium for the maintenance of bifidobacteria due to
reducedhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html viability
of these organisms (Medina and Jordano, 1994; Dave and Shah, 1998). Loss of viability
of bifidobacteria has been observed in fermented milk rather than in unfermented milk
due to acid injury to the organism. viability Lankaputhra and Shah (1997) observed
that
(12% and total of solids) Bifidobacteriumat pH 4.3
infantis in skim milk
respectively. Although more recent study by Bruno 82% after 12 and 24 days was of
reduced storage by at 30% 4°C, alet particularly hi-maize in fermented milks, the
viability . (2002) has shown that with addition of prebiotics of bifidobacteria could
be improved. However, more research needs to be carried out in order to investigate
the effect of consuming capsules containing freeze-dried bifidobacteria supplemented
with a prebiotic on gastro-intestinal health in the average healthy adult population.
substrates
Prebiotics
for
bifidobacteria
and
lactobacilli
and
result
inhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html their in the are diet
non-digestible that are the preferred carbohydrate foods increased number in the
large intestine (Gibson and Roberfroid, definition the of 1995; Ziemer and Gibson,
1998). The its selectivity for certain species of the gut bacteria. dietary fibre
prebiotics definition; overlaps with significantly the exception with of According
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(2004), in order to being considered as an effective to Salminen et al. (1998) and
Gibson
prebiotic,
any
food
ingredient
must
demonstrate
the
following
characteristics:
-Non-digestibility and non-absorption in the GIT-Fermentability by the gut
microflora
of one or a limited number of colonic bacteria
-Selective stimulation of the growth and activity
species -An ability to increase
the number of saccharolytic such and decrease putrefactive microorganisms microflora
balance towards a healthier composition.
as
Clostridia
in
order
to
alter
micrhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmloflora
the
colonic
The concept of
prebiotic is to improve the gut Saxelin through dietary means. According to several
et alprebiotic hundred . (2003), while the large intestine contains strains of
favorable concept prebiotics microflora assumes anaerobic bacteria, the in that there
is already metabolic only need to the stimulate GIT and the therefore, growth the
important functional effects of prebiotics on the gut activities of those bacteria.
The most and microflora include (1) gut microflora modification, (2) maintaining the
intestinal mucosa with the capacity to of reducing the risk of tumour induction by
improving dietary prevent proteins pathogen by activation, the intestinal (3)
microflora, modification (4) the bacterial enzyme activity, and
mucosal permeability (Salminen
(5) improving gut
Using prebiotics in food formulation et al., 1996).
process
1340Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-1350
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has as organisms ahttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmllive during
transit through upper gastro-they some could advantages reduce the over problem the
probiotic of keeping strategy the intestinal tract as well as during storage
(Crittenden, 1999). interaction Thus, beneficial of the a non-digestible prebiotic
approach food involves the and lactobacilli in the human colon.
micro-organisms such as ingredient bifidobacteria and oligosaccharide The most
researched prebiotics are non-digestible monosaccharide molecules, containing 3 to
10 linkages (Niness, 1999). Most of them occur naturally residues connected by
glycosidic as stachyose native components and in in plants e.g. raffinose and leek
(Van Loo inulin in beans chicory, and peas, oligofructose (OF) which et algarlic,
artichoke, onion and an food evaluation sufficient of data ., 1995). Inulin is a
prebiotic for its classification has been generated as to allow enzymatically
ingredient.
Inulin
includes
native
a
functional
and
anhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmld Hoebregs, 1994).
synthetic fructooligosaccharides hydrolyzed inulin or (De oligofructose, inulin,
Leenheer Inulin - chemistry and nomenclature
known as fructans. In general, fructan is a term used Inulin belongs to a category
of carbohydrates for linkages any carbohydrate bonds or branched fructose polymers,
which are either β 2 (Kaur constitute and Gupta, the in majority which
fructosyl-fructose 2002). Fructans of the glycosidic are linear → 1 linked inulin
or β 2 → 6 linked levan (Kaur and Gupta, 2002). In comparison to starch and cellulose,
which large molecules and only include a small proportion are large glucose polymers,
fructans are not of plant polymer chains exceeding 50 fructose units (Roberfroid
storage polymers in many plants such as et al., 1998). Fructans are known as
intyubusand
believed
(chicory), Innula helenium (elecampane), Cichorium is molecules
Helianthus
tuberosusthat
the
synthesis
(Jerusahttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmllem artichoke).
It
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and storage of these and Smeekens, 1999).
usually occur in the plant vacuole (Vijn found and they include inulins (linear;
G1-2F1-2Fn;
In higher plants, major classes of fructans are β graminans (branched;
mixed levans; β 2 → 6 and β 2 2 → 1), levans (linear; G1-2F6-2Fn; β 2 → 6),
→ 6) (Chalmers et al., 2005).
polydisperse carbohydrate, comprised of linear chains Inulin (C6n H10n 2 O5n 1) has
been described as a of 1, 2- linked-β-D-fructosyl units bound to a terminal glucose
molecule (Roberfroid and Delzenne, 1998). It unique molecular structure which not
only confirms is distinguished among the fructan family by its inulin’s status as
a soluble dietary fibre but also
qualifies it as an effective prebiotic. It is mainly of plant origin, whereas some
fungi and many bacteria are Inulin important the usually found producers in of inulin
(Fuchs,
1991).
artichoke
(Vijn
and
Smeekens,
Schttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlhematically,
1999).
order
Asterales, such plant as chicory species and belonging Jerusalem to the molecular
formula of inulin is GFn and Fm, where G is glucosyl unit, F is fructosyl unit and
n indicating the glucose unit, and m is an integer number of fructose number of
fructose units linked to the terminal units linked to each other in the carbohydrate
chain.
60 while OF as a subgroup of inulin is composed of Inulin is a mixture of GFn molecules
with 2
enzymes
For synthesis sucrose: are required of the (Vijn linear and inulin Smeekens,
at least two initiates fructan synthesis by catalysing the transfer sucrose
1-fructosyltransferase (1-SST) 1999): of a fructosyl residue from sucrose to another
sucrose molecule, leading to the production of a trisaccharide 1-kestose (Figure 1)
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(Roberfroid (glucosyl-1, is mediated by the second enzyme, fructan: fructan et
al2-fructosyl-1,
.,
1998).
Chain
elongation
1-fructosylhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html
2-fructose)
the
transfers
fructosyl residues from a fructan molecule inulin molecules transferase (Flamm
(1-FFT), et leading al., 2001). to forming 1-FFT with a DP>3 to another fructan
molecule or to starch (Vijn and Smeekens, 1999).
proposed Although this model of inulin synthesis was Laere, was shown to be correct.
In 1996, results of several 2002), by Edelman it took more and than Jefford 30 years
in 1968 before (Van it studies also confirmed that the interaction of this set of
fructosyltransferases with starch resulted in the
Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-13501341
formation 20 fructosyl residues (Vijn and Smeekens, 1999; Van of inulin with a polymer
length of up to Laere, 2002). The cDNAs encoding 1-SST has been cloned from Jerusalem
artichoke (Pan chicory (Vijn 1998), and onion (Vijn et al., 1998), artichoke (Hellwege
et al., 2009), et al., has been cloned only from Jerusalem artichoke and et al., 1998),
wherhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmleas
(Hellwege chain the length, it has been et al., 1998).
1-FFT
artichoke
In terms of inulin suggested
that the size of depends fructosyl (Hellwege on the polymers enzymatic produced
activity by of a plant their 1-FFTs mainly has a much higher degree of polymerization
(DP up
In comparison, et al., 1998).
fungal or bacterial inulin generally to 150) and less structural diversity than plant
inulin (Vijn and Smeekens, 1999). Fungal inulin is generally assumed to be synthesized
by sequential transfer of fructosyl residues from fructosyl donor (sucrose) to the
by growing inulin. Chain elongation is without inulosucrase intermediate. the
presence (sucrose of 1F- any fructosyltransferase) mediated trisaccharide as simpler
than plant inulin biosynthesis because only Thus, inulin synthesis in bacteria is
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a Smeekens, 1999).
single biosynthetic enzyme is involved (Vijn and and oligosaccharides of fructose
units linked with http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlβ
As
discussed above, inulin is a mixture of poly- (2→1). tract Inulin is indigestible
in the to lack of degradation in digestive tract. Inulin would of all higher animals
(Coussement, gastrointestinal 1996) due be able to selectively enhance the
proliferation of gut bifiobacteria, decrease pH and lower the oxidation-reduction
(Gibson, 1994).
potential in the gastrointestinal tract Plant sources of inulin
(e.g.
Approximately
15%
of
flowering
plant
species
CompositaeLiliaceae,
Amaryllidaceae, Gramineae, and (Vijn reserve and Smeekens, ) produce fructans in
significant amounts lifecycle (Vijn and Smeekens, 1999; Kaur and Gupta, in at least
one 1999) of their and organs store during them as their a 2002). number of regularly
consumed vegetables, fruits, and Inulin is present in roots and rhizomes of a cereals,
including leek, onion, garlic, wheat, chicory (Roberfroid, 1993) and in a wide range
of bacterial species (Vijhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmln and
Smeekens, 1999). Despite the high inulin content of the aerial parts of many Gramineae
(e.g. species grains), only a limited number of (Fuchs, 1999). This may be due to
presence of some are suitable for industrial food applications these plant
interfering components in these plants which inulin cannot be easily extracted and
processed to purified products.
quite
Inulin content can vary with some plants being dry inulin weight) low in inulin
(banana, around 0.5% of root weight, dried garlic 28.2% of root dry weight) (Vijn
(raw-dried and other onion plants around being 18.3% very of root high dry in and
as a reserve carbohydrate in the fleshy tap root and Smeekens, 1999). In chicory,
inulin is stored constitutes about 42% of root dry weight (Kaur and Gupta, together
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with their inulin content (g/100g dry weight) 2002). Some important sources of inulin
are shown in Table 1.
Inulin as a dietary fibre
cellshttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html Dietary resistance and
classified fibre are as components carbohydrates of edible which plant but are
fermented by the bacteria in the large bowel to digestion by small intestine enzymes
are (Roberfroid, 1993). Because of the β-(2→1) fructosyl-fructose carbohydrate
(oligo-and polysaccharides) that resists linkages, inulin is classified as a
‘storage digestion by mammal digestive enzymes in the upper gastro-intestinal
microflora. By increasing faecal biomass and water tract but fermented by the colonic
content of the stools, inulin improves bowel habits. For dietary fibre (Roberfroid,
1993).
all these reasons, inulin can be considered as edible Inulin presents in significant
amounts in several onions, banana, garlic, and leek (Flamm fruits and vegetables like
wheat, The average daily intake of inulin has been estimated et al., 2001). chicory,
to be 3-11 g/person/day in Europe and 1-4 g/person/day in the United States.
://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlrAsia and Middle East (Kaur and
Gupta, 2002). The
However, no such study has been made in India, U.S. Moshfegh
Department of Agriculture (USDA) study by of range from 1.3 g/day for young children
to 3.5 g/day inulin varied et al. (1999) showed that the mean intake by gender and
age group, with a for teenage boys and adult males. Per 1000 calories, the 1.5 g/day
in the American diet. The primary sources daily mean intake of inulin ranged from
0.9 to of inulin in the American diet include wheat, onion, garlic and banana with
the contribution percentage of 69%, 23%, 3% and 3% to the average daily intake of
inulin, respectively (Moshfegh foods were not consumed for the health benefits per
Initially, inulin and other et alfructan-containing ., 1999).
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se, due to availability, cost and personal preferences (Kaur and Gupta, 2002). A
series of conferences held in studies Japan in 1982, 1984 and 1986 humans resulting
from eating inuhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmllin to changes
in the have linked nutritional health and more changes recent in numbers (Roberfroied
and varieties and Delzenne, of intestinal 1998; micro-organism Flamm et al.,
1342Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-1350
2001). functional food ingredient for disease risk-reduction In the future, inulin
could be classified as a claims.
Prebiotic effects of inulin in the gastro-intestinal tract
digestible Fructo-polysaccharides such as inulin target carbohydrate substrates in
the are diet non-that the human large intestine such as bifidobacteria and certain
components of the gut microbiota in lactobacilli (Kaur and Gupta, 2002).
subjects (Gibson Published results from in vitro studies and human inulin can
stimulate the growth and/or activity of these et al., 1995) have demonstrated that
types of bacteria in the colon and this stimulation can improve the intestinal flora
composition,
enhance
thttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlhe
immune system and thereby contribute to the health of the host (Rao, 2001;
Lopez-Molina Results that ingestion of inulin compared to other sources of from Kaur
and Gupta (2002) et alhave ., 2005). shown carbohydrate like sucrose, could
significantly reduce the count of pathogenic bacteria such as bacteroids,
fusobacteria and clostridia and increase the count of positive microorganisms such
as bifidobacteria (Kaur and Gupta, 2002) (Table 2).
Similar human studies in
populations European, of inulin have reported similar results (Gibson looking
Japanese for and using North different American daily doses adult 1995; Klessen study
results have suggested that the beneficial effect et al., 1997; Kruse et al., 1999).
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These et al., of inulin could be due to the ability of bifiodobacteria to inhibit
the activity of detrimental bacteria, change the colonic composition, obtain an
adhesion
sites
on
the
gut
epithelium
and
finally
stimulate
the
http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlimmune system (Kaur and Gupta,
2002). The prebiotic effect of inulin has been extensively confirmed by several
studies. Some of these studies are listed in Table 3.
Fermentibility of inulin in the upper gastro-
intestinal tract
β (C2) configuration Schematically, between inulin molecule the two atoms is
comprised of carbon of Several studies have shown that this configuration is in its
molecule (Kaur and Gupta 2002). resistant to hydrolysis by human digestive enzymes
(α-glucosidase; is and Delzenne, 1998; Flamm specific for maltase-isomaltase; its
glycoside sucrase) which digestibility of inulin has been confirmed by several et
allinkages ., 2001). The non-(Roberfroid studies (Roberfroid and Delzenne, 1998).
They have shown conducted in vivo and vitro experiments that ‘the stomach hydrolysis
of inulin is likely to be of limited physiological significance’. The ingested inulin
remains
unchanged
for
up
to
1
orhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html 2 h in the different rat or
human small intestine which has been confirmed segments (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum)
of by Hessove (1995) and Ellegard in vivo studies of rats and humans. Knudsen and
the action of the upper gastrointestinal tract on inulin et al. (1997) have studied
in humans. To study the physiology of the digestive system in humans and to quantify
the amount of inulin exiting model in both studies. The ileostomy model serves as
the small intestine, they used the ileostomy the basis for the study of carbohydrate
digestion and carbohydrate effects in the human small intestine and includes the
surgical formation of an opening of the ileum on the abdominal wall (Knudsen and
Hessove, 1995). that any this Different model clinical is studies have demonstrated
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measurable (Cummings substrate passing making to the exact amount of 1996). Results
of both above studies demonstrate that et alileostomy ., 1996; Englyst effluent
easihttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlly et al., 86-88% in the
ileostomy effluent. They concluded that inulin of the ingested dose of inulin is
recovered proceeds undigested through the upper part of gastro-intestinal tract into
the colon, and further, there is no evidence extent in the small intestine.
that inulin is absorbed to any significant the small intestine could be due to
fermentation by the The small loss of inulin during the passage through microbial
in population colonizing the small intestine population is known to be up to 100 times
greater in individuals with ileostomies. This microbial the people with ileostomy
than in normal individuals (Flammtract, During
et alproduces inulin passage .,
2001).
as a non-digestible through the carbohydrate gastro-intestinal chain carboxylic acid
(the end products of glycolysis fructose, glucose, lactic acid and never short and
(Reboerfroid anaerobic fermentation) in (1995) subjects (six females and one
mhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlale)
with
a
median
age
conducted et ala ., case 1995). control Knudsen the small trial among and intestine
Hessov seven of 38 (range 22-73) years and measured the amount of lactic acid and
short chain acids before and after inulin intake.
The results have shown no
difference in after inulin intake.
total acids exiting the small intestine before and appears They suggested that
although no digestive process intestine however, there was a shift in the nature of
to occur during the inulin intake in small fermentation polysaccharide substrate lead
to inulin. from This starch shifting and non-starch lactic acid amount in small
intestine.
to a decrease in the SCFA and an trend increase could in a to ‘colonic Thus it has
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and fermenting food’, been which proposed in the means to classify inulin as colon
a and ‘food serving entering as a
Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-13501343
substrate for the endogenouhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmls
bacteria to provide the host nutrients’(Flamm with energy, et almetabolic ., 2001).
substrate and essential Physiological effects of inulin fermentation in the
gastro-intestinal tract
as it contains less than half amount of calorie content
Inulin is classified as
a low calorie food ingredient of digestible carbohydrates, providing a calorie value
of 1.0-2.0 kcal/g (Kaur and Gupta, 2002). Therefore, inulin substitute to lower the
total calorie content of daily can be used as a suitable food ingredient diet
especially for obese people.
that a diet supplementation with inulin would reduce
In addition, animal in vivo
studies have concluded the cecal pH by production of SCFA (end products of colonic
fermentation of inulin), increase the size of the cecal pool for SCFA production,
and increase the wall thickness in the small intestine and in the cecum which results
in
an
increase
in
blood
flow
(Andersson
ethttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html al., 2001).
Effect of inulin on constipation
encountered
in
elderly
people.
Different
reasons
may
Constipation
is
a
multi-factorial ailment often contribute to the development of constipation such as
aging, medications, inadequate fibre-containing products in a daily diet, inadequate
fluid intake, lack of physical activity, and decrease in intestinal motility.
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fermentation Different human studied have suggested motility and (Roberfroid, of
carbohydrate 1993; Kleessen stimulate colonic that inulin therefore, administration
of oligofructose et al., 1997), abdominal to a daily diet could improve constipation,
and frequency. administration of oligofructose relieved constipation Hidaka
discomfort, et al. and (1991) increase observed in that stool the and inulin ingestion
improved constipation in 9 of 10 subjects. was Abdominal discomfort, mainly
significant
increase
in
stool
frequency
was
observed
reported
rarelhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmly, and by only a few
patients. A flatulence, in healthy volunteers having one stool every 2–3 days by
including inulin with DP more than 25 in the diet (Hond et al., 2000).
Effect of inulin on mineral absorption
as a soluble fibre may increase the body absorption of Some studies have suggested
that chicory inulin calcium, improve bone mineral density, and reduce the risk of
osteoporosis development. Delzenne (1999) absorbed more calcium and magnesium
compared to have demonstrated that rats fed with inulin et al. control rat, despite
an increase in total faecal mass.
Increased calcium absorption could be due to
its from the small intestine into large intestine and the increased availability by
transfer of calcium osmotic the large intestine, thus allowing it to become more
effect of inulin that transfers water into soluble absorption (Kaur ileal, was and
associated
Gupta,
with
2002).
decreased
imhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlproved
pH
The
increased
concentration of ionized minerals. Ohta cecal and colonic contents, resulting in an
of alet calcium . (1994) reported that ingestion of inulin improved although only
magnesium absorption was increased and magnesium absorption in normal rats, in
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cecectomized rats. This suggested that the effect of fermentation in the cecum was
particularly important for alcalcium absorption. Other study by Coudray of . (1997)
noted that inulin improved the absorption et humans. calcium digestible carbohydrates
improves mineral absorption Mechanism but not of by magnesium, which ingestion iron
and of zinc non-in is not clear.
Effect of inulin on glycemia/insulinemia
and The effect of inulin and oligofructose on glycemia existing data are contradictory,
indicating that these insulinemia are not yet fully understood, and effects disease
may revealed (Kaur be and due Gupta, to physiological 2002). Oku nature et al.
(19http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html84) of the glycemia 17% and
26% reductions in postprandial after fructooligosaccharides feeding and by
insulinemia a diet containing respectively among rats reduction (FOS) 10% short-chain
maltose is possibly due to reduction of disaccharidase in glycemic response for to
30 saccharose days. The or activity in the gastro-intestinal tract. Luo confirmed
et al. (1996) diabetic oligofructose rats, the ingestion previous results of a diet
and containing showed that in glycemia, glycemic despite for 2 a months lack of
decreased modification postprandial 20% of the or human studies are not consistent
with above studies. maltose or load. insulinemic However, response the results to
a from saccharose some For in days in diabetic subjects led to a decrease in fasting
diabetic example, subjects, Yamashita taking et al8 . g (1984) of FOS/day showed for
that
14 blood glucose (Yamashitaartichoke inulin was added to 50 g of wheat-starch
et al., 19http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html84). When 10 g of
meal in healthy human subjects, the blood glycemic response was lower, despite no
apparent interference by 1990). When rats are fed with 10% and 20% FOS in inulin on
starch absorption (Rumessen et al., their diet for 6 weeks, the tests showed that
mouth to anus transit time was shortened by 25 and 50%, respectively. This reduction
in transit time confirms a dose-dependent effect (Oku similar to other dietary fibres;
inulin and oligofructose
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et al., 1984), possibly
1344Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-1350
influence the absorption of macronutrients, especially carbohydrates, shortening
small-intestinal transit time.
by delaying gastric emptying and reduced Boillot et al. intake could be mediated by
the short-chain carboxylic hepatic gluconeogenesis (1995) have demonstrated induced
by inulin the acids, the glucose diet especially of rats for propionate. 4
given
in
Propionate
hepatohttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlcytes,
and
weeks reduced fasting blood into probably inhibited via gluconeogenesis in isolated
succinyl-CoA, both of which are specific inhibitors methylmalonyl-coenzyme its
metabolic A (CoA) conversion and of pyruvate carboxylase.
In addition, propionate
may also influence hepatic glucose metabolism indirectly by lowering plasma fatty
acid concentration, a factor known to be closely related to gluconeogenesis (Lee et
al., 1996).
Effect of inulin on lipid metabolism
inulin in the diet of saturated fat fed rats significantly Kaur et al. (1989) have
shown that inclusion of reduced liver. the high triglyceride triacylglycerol (TG)
lowering effect of oligofructose
Delzenne and Kok (1999) content suggested of blood
and that occurs via reduction in very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)-TG secretion
from the liver as a result of the reduction in the case of fatty acid synthase via
modification
of
in
the
activity
lipogenihttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlc
enzymes,
of
and
lipogenic serum TG when it was included in the standard, fibre gene expression.
Oligofructose decreased free or high fat diet of rats. Addition of oligofructose in
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liver fatty acid synthesis (Delzenne and Kok, 1999). a carbohydrate rich diet reduced
the de novo Studies on incorporation of 14? acetate into TG in hepatocytes isolated
from control and oligofructose-fed rats also supported the above results (Kok 1996).
Hepatic glycerol-3- phosphate concentrations et al., were than significantly
3-phosphate content of the liver might be due to its in controls. This higher relative
in oligofructose increase in glycerol-fed rats decreased Indeed, but the utilization
administration
for
fatty
of
oligofructose
acid
esterification.
esterify
significantly, 1995).
14 ? palmitate reduced into hepatocyte TG (Fiordaliso capacity slightly et alto .,
Prebiotics in food applications
that
Prebiotics
are
classified
as
“foohttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmld products concentration,
contain prebiotic postulated benefit is obtained” (Saxelin so that after ingredients
their ingestion, in sufficient The potential interest for using prebiotic in daily
foods et al., 2003). the is mainly due to its low calorie value, hypocariogenic and
bifidogenic properties, and dietary fibre effects
(Roberfroid, 1993). Dairy products such as yoghurts, yoghurt and products, other
drinks, emerging spreads, food fresh products cheeses, such and as milk, sport loss
products, soymilk, and mineral supplements can functional waters, nutrition bars,
weight be supplemented with prebiotics (Niness, 1999; Kaur and Gupta, 2002).
Bifidus promoting agents
established
Inulin-type
stimulation
prebiotic
fructans
are
amongst
the
well-production of SCFA as end products of fermentation of the growth ingredients.
of bifidobacteria Their selective and the has been confirmed in many (Gibson and Wang,
199http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html4; Roberfroid, 2002). They
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are in vitro and in vivo studies increasingly used in functional foods, especially
dairy products and breads at typical amounts of 3-8 g per serving to allow the
bifidogenic claims (Coussement, 1999; Franck, 2000).
oligosaccharides
Compared to inulin, other types of non-digestive branched or
composed of several types of glycosidic such as oligofructose are either bonds, which
makes them less readily accessible for bacterial both inulin and oligofructose have
been demonstrated hydrolysis (Roberfroid, 1998). However, to be effective prebiotics
(Menne other et al., 2000). The 2001; Cummings commercially available prebiotic
(Murphy, as ingestion contributes to the growth of gut microflora bifidus factor et
alfor infant ., 2001) and currently marketed formula is lactulose. Its in babies
(Strohmaier, 1998; Salminen bottle-fed babies in the same way et alas .,
1998).breast-fed Fibre enhancer
in fhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlood formulations is their
roles as a dietary fibre.
Another remarkable functionality of prebiotics The cells
resistant to hydrolysis by the human digestive dietary fibre is defined as “remnants
of plant enzymes” (Trowel and Burkitt, 1986). As discussed previously, inulin fall
under this definition (Flamm several prebiotic substances such as Moreover, effects
from a physiologic point et alof view ., 2001). blood properties of dietary fibres
(Roberfroid, 1993; Gibson lipid of these parameters, prebiotics and on caloric
intestinal value function, the meet the et alrisk of coronary heart disease, colon
cancer and other ., 1995). These effects are related to reduce the colonic disorders.
soluble prebiotic ingredients are more palatable and Compared to insoluble fibre such
as bran, have Resistant starch is related to increased fibre content greater
functional properties (Dreher, 1999).
in grainy appearance (Murphy, 2001).
Supplemhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlentation
baked goods and pasta products without any
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Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-13501345
with enrichment, inulin in properties but baked also goods better allows not only
fibre Their drinks, dairy products, soup and table spread. Such solubility and
improved also allows texture moisture fibre incorporation (Franck, retention 2000).
in
additions are in the range of 3-6 g per serving and increase 1999).
up to 10 g in extreme cases (Coussement, Sugar replacer
and polyols can be used as sugar replacers due to their
Several types of
non-digestive oligosaccharides physiological characteristics such as having minimal
contribution to energy intake and performing bulking properties (Frank, 2000).
similar to glucose syrup and is often used to replace
Oligofructose delivers some
functional properties sugar products such as chocolate filling biscuits, chewing in
various foods, mainlyhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html dairy
and bakery gums, (Franck, 2000). In addition, oligofructose depresses confectionary,
dairy desserts, and ice-cream the binder freezing sugar. The solubility of
oligofructose is higher than in nutrition point of bars, frozen in much desserts the
and same acts way as as a sucrose (Angus but sweeteners et alits ., sweetness 2005).
In is combination about 30% with of sucrose other provide a desired sweetness and
better flavour profile such as aspartame, oligofructose can (Weidmann and Jager, 1997;
Kaur and Gupta, 2002).
properties similar to sucrose and therefore, it can be
Lactulose carries out some
flavour enhancing used to replace sucrose in some foods such as yoghurt, cookies
because and cakes (Schumann, often utilised in limited quantities in foods.
of its laxative characteristics, 2002). lactulose
However, is lactitol,
Sugar
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alcohols such as sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, oligofructose and lactulose
contribhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlute fewer calories and
non-digestive oligosaccharides such as (1-2 kcal /g) than sugar (4 kcal /g) (Salminen
1998; of Murphy, 2001) allowing the development et al., particularly sugar-reduced
low-energy products. This is hard true in sugar-free confections such as sugar-free
added baked goods and ice-creams. More candies, chewing gums and marshmallows,
importantly, advantages over traditional digestible carbohydrates these low-calorie
ingredients offer such having as those low sucrose, glycemic glucose index and
(especially fructose in helpful terms for of obesity (Hidaka patients with et al.,
1986; Schumann, 2002).diabetes, heart problems and Fat replacer
have
Specific been developed kinds of prebiotics as fat replacers such
oligosaccharides and texture
modifiers fat and creaminess, 3) increase perception of body and or partial as they
fat would content, be 2) able modify to 1) reduce smoothness total richness,
4http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html) improve an overall eating
quality and an acceptable appearance.
to foods replace
Inulin is well-recognized prebiotic for its ability mixed (Silva,
fat in the manufacturing of low-calorie dimensional with water, 1996; it Franck, forms
gels 2000). composed When inulin of a tri-is crystalline immobilized water. This
inulin gel provides the same inulin gel network particles of with insoluble large
amounts sub-micron of texture and
mouth feel as fat (Silva 1996; Franck 2000).
The chain length of inulin plays a key role in gel quality. A high DP inulin facilitates
gel formation at replace lower is fat concentrations up to 100%. and Fat replacement
can be formulated by to such successfully applied in most water-based inulin foods
table spreads, sauces, soups and even meat products, as dairy products, frozen
desserts, dressings, but confectionery not in dry foods such as snacks, bakery 1 most
g
of
products
(Murphy,
2001).
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Tyhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlpically, and with foods fat
can (Coussement be replaced 1999). by a 0.35 Formulating g of inulin in stability
inulin also helps to maximize freeze-thaw foods due with to its and ability minimize
to immobilize emulsion water separation and to phased work and most gelling agents
such gelatin, gellan gum, a provides crispness and expansion to extruded snacks richer
maltodextrin texture to (Bishay, liquid products 1998). Inulin and spreads also gives
and and cereals. In addition to inulin, resistant starch is also in extruded cereals,
the use of resistant starch improves low-moisture used as a fat foods mimetic e.g.
crackers and a texture and cookie. enhancer In crispness and expansion (Murphy, 2001).
Health effects of probiotics
feed Probiotic cultures are described as live microbial balance and are intended for
maintenance of health supplements that improve intestinal microbial or Shah, 2004).
Probiotic bacteria are abhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlle to
suppress
prevention
of
disease
(Fuller,
1991;
Bruno
and
potentially
gastro-intestinal pathogenic in track and microorganisms improve the in balance the
and favour obtained through various studies on Bezkorovainy, of beneficial 1993).
microorganisms The scientific (Ibrahim evidence BifidobacteriumLactobacilli and
effects Such examples are presented in Table 4.
of these
micro-organisms spp. has strengthened on human the positive health. health
benefits and strains of the same species often It is noted that no strain provides
all the proposed exhibit distinct effects, therefore, the health properties
1346Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-1350
of each strain need to be investigated independently (Doleyres and Lacroix, 2005).
Strain of GG (Valio) is the most extensively studied probiotic in L. rhamnosus human
clinical trials (Fonden involving in the management of rotavirus diarrhoea, et al.,
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2003),
particuhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmllarly
difficile).
reuteriBb L.
Strains
of
antibiotic-associated
diarrhoea
12, L. plantarumL. acidophilus DSM9843
(Clostridium
and
lactis
NCFB 1748, B. (299V), L. for
casei(BioGaia 2006).
the
clinical Shirota effects (Yakault) Biologics), (Fonden are L. also johnsonii
La-1 and et alwell ., 2003; established Shah, Application of probiotics bacteria in
functional foods
in the Europe, The demand relationship between diet and health. Probiotics are
heightened Japan, for probiotic foods is increasing awareness Germany among and the
the U.S, public reflecting of the widely used in dairy products, particularly yoghurts
where strains the spp.
(Fonden of Lactobacillusfermentation
carried Bifidobacteriumout with
is spp. often and
of during the late 1960s for producing mildly
acidified L. acidophiluset al ., 2003). In Germany, the mixture and B. Bifidum were
introduced
yoghurts,
later
known
as
“AB
yoghurt”
due
to
their
exphttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlected adaptation to the
intestine and the sensory benefits. casei as these strains are believed to act
synergistically on in addition Later the to L. trend acidophilus has been and to
Bifidobacteriumincorporate L.
each other.
available in the market are probiotic drinks including Typical examples of other
probiotic products drinking sour cream, buttermilk, ice-cream and frozen desserts,
yoghurts, fruit juices, fermented soy products, spread, cheeses, and milk powders
(Lourens- Hattingh and Viljoen 2001). are manufactured in various ways. The bacteria
may Currently, probiotic milk drinks be added without fermentation, so-called sweet
milk or the milk is cultured with probiotic bacteria such as Yakault (Tamime
breveFermented milks et al., 2005).
containing B. longum or B. (FOSHU) approval in Japan (Champagne
have obtained
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“foods for specific health uses” In recent times, probiotics have also been marketed
et al., 200http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.html5). as bacteria,
mainly dietary supplements consisting of freeze-dried powder the supplements
commercial form (Hamilton-Miller, L. acidophilus in tablet, capsule or companies
producing 2005). such Some of NSW, include Blackmores Ltd. (Balgowlah, dietary
(Stokesub-
Hamdon,
Somerset,
UK)
and
Natren
Inc.
Australia),
Probiotics
International Ltd. (Westlake Village, CA, USA).
Industrial interest in developing probiotic foods
is driven by the market potential for foods that target health and and well-beings.
To date, over worldwide (Tamime acidophilus-containing products are 100 available
bifidus- containing foods have been launched since the 1920s et al., 2005). In Japan,
probiotic-and more than 53 different types of milk products are estimated probiotic
of is to be on the market (Shah, 2006). Using USA. It was estimated that in 2000,
Europeans spent yoghurt in largely Europe restricted and acidophilus to the
manufacturinhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlg milk in the $899
million on probiotic yoghurts and milks and on average the market share of probiotic
yoghurts was ca. 10% of the total yoghurts (Stanton In 2007, the Australian market
for yoghurt and dairy et al., 2001). desserts value with probiotic yoghurt a leader,
growing up by accounted for 17% of dairy category sales 12 % (Dairy Australia, 2007).
Conclusion
probiotics As different a and prebiotics studies have in what suggested, has combining
improving survival and implantation of live microbial synbiotic could beneficially
affect the been host called by 1) dietary supplements in the gastro-intestinal flora,
2) selectively catabolism stimulating promoting bacteria in the GIT, and 3) improving
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the of one or a the limited growth number or activating of health-the
gastro-intestinal tract’s microbial balance. However, the investigated. creation
could
improve
the
survival
of
the
bacteria
Combihttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlning
of
crossing
a
synbiotic
probiotics food with has prebiotics not been the enhancing their effects in the large
bowel. Moreover, upper part of the gastro-intestinal tract, thus probiotic or and
prebiotic effects might combining the anti-carcinogenic effects of inulin and even
synergistic. This has been the be case additive when bifidobacteria in experimental
animals.
the production and bifidogenic effects of inulin and A large number of researches
have focused on less required on synbiotic foods. Hence, further research is and
probiotics in development of new dairy products to focus on the combination of
prebiotics on commercial and the task for assessment these analytical prebiotic
probiotic compounds. The cultures in of the viability of emergence the presence of
has intervention. revealed techniques new pathways such as affected metabolite of
new by profiling dietary current bacterial and future However, research an important
is http://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlto relate challenge changes
for in Potential metabolism to concrete health benefits. identified: reduced risk
for the metabolic syndrome targets and expected benefits have been and prevention
of colorectal cancer.
Miremadi and Shah/IFRJ 19(4):1337-13501347
References
Andersson, H., Asp, N.G., Bruce, A., Roos, S., Wadstrom,
T. and Wold, A.E. 2001. Health effects of probiotics and prebiotics: a literature
review on human studies. Bishay, I.E. 1998. Rheological characterization of inulin.
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http://doc.xuehai.net/
Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition 45:58-75.
In: Williams, P.A. and Phillips, G.O. (Eds) Gums and stabilisers for the food industry,
p.201-210. Cambridge, Bouhnik, YUK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
M., Effects of fructooligosaccharides ingestion on faecal Guibert, ., Flourie, B.,
Riottot, M., Bisetti, N., Gailing,
A.,
Bornet,
F.
and
Rambaud
J.
1996.
bifidobacteria
and
selected
metabolhttp://doc.xuehai.net/b12a5d213946662646440b40c.htmlic indexes of colon
carcinogenesis in healthy humans. Boillot, J., Alamowitch, C., Berger, A.-M., Luo,
J., Bruzzo,
26: 21-29.
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