Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
A Communications Fundamental for the Pulp and Paper Industry ORAL COMMUNICATION 2 Facilitator Guide NQF Level: 2 Credits: 5 Unit Standard: 8962 / 119454 Compiled by: Antoinette Manelis Brigitte Els for FIETA Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Oral Communication 2 Learning Outcomes Upon studying this module, the learner will be able to: explain what communication is understand the types of communication understand what verbal communication is understand how verbal communication is used in terms of tone, pitch, rhythm, articulation, projection and tempo understand what non-verbal communication is understand how eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, movements, appearance etc play a role in communicating with people understand how different cultures and the way they do things plays a role in the way we communicate with others understand the importance of listening skills understand why people do not listen understand what good listeners are understand the importance of questioning techniques understand the purpose of paraphrasing in communication understand the importance of note taking in communication know how to conquer your fear of speaking in public understand the basics of public speech / presentation US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 2 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 understand what biased language is understand manipulative language understand how words and sentences are formed know various technical terms Unit Standard Unit Standard 8962: Maintain and adapt oral communication SO 1 Use a variety of speaking and listening strategies to maintain communication SO 2 Adapt speech to accommodate socio-cultural sensitivities without losing own meaning SO 3 Shape or decode meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary or constructions SO 4 Organise and present information in a focused and coherent manner SO 5 Identify and explain how speaker influence audiences Recommended Reading Reading skills 2: Unit Standard 8963 Study Skills 1: Unit Standard 13202 Oral Communication 3: Unit Standard 8968 Reading Skills 3: Unit Standard 8969 US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 3 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION........................................................ 6 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 6 2 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION ......................................................................... 7 3 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? ...................................................................................... 9 4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................11 4.1 Verbal / oral communication ..................................................................................11 4.2 Organisational communication ..............................................................................12 4.3 Mass communication ............................................................................................12 4.4 Small-group communication ..................................................................................13 4.5 Interpersonal communication ................................................................................13 4.6 Public communication ...........................................................................................13 4.7 Inter-cultural communication .................................................................................13 4.8 Intrapersonal communication ................................................................................13 4.9 Non-verbal communication ...................................................................................14 4.10 Written communication..........................................................................................14 CHAPTER 2: VERBAL COMMUNICATION..........................................................................16 1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................16 2 WHAT IS VERBAL COMMUNICATION? ......................................................................17 2.1 Oral Communication involves ... ............................................................................19 CHAPTER 3: NON–VERBAL COMMUNICATION ................................................................23 1 WHAT IS NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION? .............................................................23 1.1 2 Non-verbal communication consists of ..... ............................................................24 CULTURE-SPECIFIC BODY LANGUAGE ...................................................................32 2.1 Hand Gestures ......................................................................................................32 2.2 Eye Contact ..........................................................................................................33 2.3 Standing up or Sitting Down ..................................................................................33 2.4 Facial Expression..................................................................................................33 CHAPTER 4: SPEAKING AND LISTENING STRATEGIES ..................................................38 1 LISTENING SKILLS......................................................................................................38 1.1 The importance of listening ...................................................................................38 1.2 Barriers to effective listening .................................................................................40 1.3 What is a good listener?........................................................................................42 1.4 Techniques for effective listening ..........................................................................43 US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 4 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2 QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................45 2.1 Open-ended questions ..........................................................................................46 2.2 Closed questions ..................................................................................................47 2.3 Prompting questions .............................................................................................48 3 PARAPHRASING .........................................................................................................51 4 TAKING NOTES ...........................................................................................................51 CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATIONS .........................................................................................54 1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................54 1.2 A checklist for your presentation ...........................................................................54 1.3 Tips on overcoming the fear of speaking in public .................................................57 CHAPTER 6: MANIPULATIVE / BIASED LANGUAGE .........................................................61 1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................61 2 BIASED LANGUAGE....................................................................................................61 3 2.1 Sexist language ....................................................................................................62 2.2 Ageist language ....................................................................................................62 2.3 Language based against people with disabilities ...................................................63 2.4 Ethnically or racially biased language ...................................................................63 2.5 Other biased language ..........................................................................................63 MANIPULATIVE LANGUAGE .......................................................................................64 CHAPTER 7: SHAPE OR DECODE UNFAMILIAR VOCABULARY .....................................71 1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................71 2 TECHNICAL TERMS ....................................................................................................73 US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 5 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION By the end of this chapter you will be able to: explain what communication is understand the types of communication 1 INTRODUCTION George is a worker at a pulp and paper manufacturing plant. Looking at a day in his life, the following seems to be some of the main events in which communication plays a vital role: At the early hour of 05h00, George is woken by his alarm. At 05h15, he jogs to the nearby gym where he works out every weekday morning. On his way, he cheerfully greets a nearby neighbour who walks his dog. At the gym, he meets with some of his friends and they have a hearty discussion on the rugby of the previous night. This continues for the duration of their work-out, their shower and all the way to work. At work, George has to attend the early-morning meeting where everything that happened during the night is discussed. As he is one of the more senior men on the shift, he asks various questions to ensure that he and everyone else knows exactly what's important for their day's work. After the early-morning meeting, George has to report all the important details to his boss, who then discusses various tasks with George. As soon as this is done, George has to convey all the important information to everyone concerned. As soon as he reaches his own plant, he is being bombarded by various questions, problems, stories, etc. During his lunch-break, he rushes to the auditorium where he listens to the Minister of Finance, discussing the effect of the current economical situation on the pulp, paper and US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 6 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 tissue industry. As this is one of his pet subjects, he asks a lot of questions and has a good conversation with the engineer on his way back. Back at the plant, he walks in on a verbal disagreement between two of the workers. Being a people-oriented person, he immediately tries to stop the fight and talks to each party, discussing the problem and helping them to sort it out. After work, he rushes home where he dresses smartly for his date with his girlfriend. At the restaurant, they meet with friends and decide to enjoy the evening together. After an evening of dance, excellent food and a lot of talk, George goes home for a good night's rest. Although this is only a story, most of the communication events are probably representative of our own days. But let's see what happens if we transfer George to a pulp and paper manufacturing plant in a small town in Russia where he has to stay and work for three months to help the Russians with a specific project. Only very few of the people can speak or understand English. What would George's situation look like now? Would he still be able to greet a neighbour walking his dog? Would he be able to participate in a conversation on the previous night's ice hockey game? Would he be the one asking questions and conveying information during the early-morning meetings? Would he be able to date a Russian girl and have a nice evening with friends at a restaurant? Yes, maybe all those things would have been possible as communication entails more than oral communication. However, most of these contacts would not have been as satisfying as being able to use language to communicate with another person. 2 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION You might as well ask why it is important for you to learn all this stuff on communication. One of the main reasons is that living and working with others are communication-intensive activities. The better we understand what other people are feeling and wanting, and the more clearly others understand our goals and feelings, the easier it will be to make sure that everyone is pulling in the same direction. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 7 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Some other reasons are1: We gain respect from others when we take up a more considerate and respectful attitude toward our conversation partners and we influence them to do the same to us. We have more influence over people when we practise honest and considerate communication. We are able to handle conflict better when we come to understand more of what goes on in conversations. Learning to listen to others more deeply can increase our confidence that we will be able to help generate problem solutions that meet more of everyone's needs. Adopting a more peaceful and creative attitude in our interaction with others can be a significant way of lowering our own stress levels. Even in unpleasant situations, we can feel good about our own skilful responses. Exercises in listening can help us listen more carefully and reassure our conversation partners that we really do understand what they are going through. Exercises in selfexpression can help us ask for what we want more clearly and calmly. Communication is also of the utmost importance to businesses. Without communication, businesses would not survive. Businesses are concerned with a wide range of communication activities. First of all, internal communication needs to be as effective as possible. This involves various communication activities to ensure good upwards (to your boss), downwards (to your subordinates) and lateral (to your colleagues / peers) communication. Companies also have to communicate externally with other companies, suppliers, customers, etc. since good relationships with them is essential for the business's survival and growth. 1 Adapted from an article by Dennis Rivers at www.coopcom.org US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 8 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Communication enables people to co-ordinate their activities which makes organised behaviour in a business possible. Understanding that communication is important, we have to start looking at what communication is. 3 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? Communication can be defined as a two–way process whereby information (a message) is sent from one person (sender) to another person (receiver). The roles of the sender and receiver change constantly due to the fact that the sender also becomes the receiver of the message and the receiver becomes the sender. The communication process has 7 main elements, namely 1 Sender 2 Receiver 3 Message 4 Channel 5 Feedback 6 Barriers 7 Result US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 9 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 The SENDER initiates the message after he has decided what the purpose (instruct, persuade, inform) of it should be. The MESSAGE is then decoded in a form that the RECEIVER will understand and sent in a specific format via a CHANNEL (verbal, non-verbal, written, etc). The RECEIVER decodes the MESSAGE so that he / she can understand it. The RESULT suggests that communication has either taken place or not taken place. Due to various BARRIERS (noise, too many people to pass on the message, different perceptions, different cultures, etc), the send-message is seldom exactly the same as the received-message. To ensure that the RESULT of the MESSAGE is as clear as possible, FEEDBACK should be given / received Barriers to effective communication can be caused by factors such as: the number of stages a message has to go through the amount of time allowed for a message to move through an organisation the lack of understanding the shortening of message because people do not care about details US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 10 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 the filtering of the message through each stage (the receiver decides what the next person would need to know) deliberate distortion (people only send what they want others to receive) overloading of information (too much information at one time) underloading of information (too little information) Communication can either be one-way or two-way communication. In two-way communication the focus is on feedback and interaction during communication, where the negotiation of meaning is truly important. One-way communication is mostly characterised by the lack of feedback, difficulty in obtaining feedback or delayed feedback. In large organisations, getting feedback could be a problem to which special attention should be paid. Improving verbal communications requires first that we understand that communication is very seldom perfect or clear. We must learn to listen better and speak more clearly. We must also learn to check whether our message is delivered correctly and whether we have heard a message clearly. 4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION2 There are various types of communication, such as formal and informal, one-way and two-way, written, verbal and non-verbal, etc. Following are some of the types: 4.1 Verbal / oral communication Verbal communication involves the use of words in speaking (oral), writing, reading and listening. 2 Effective Communication in Organizations: Michael Fielding US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 11 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 The majority of our time is spent communicating verbally, which can be both direct and indirect. Direct verbal communication refers to face-to-face communication with one or more people, such as during meetings, group discussions or speaking one-on-one. It includes giving instructions or listening to instructions, dealing with visitors, explaining a problem to your supervisor, etc. Indirect verbal communication refers to communication that is not face-to-face, such as writing and reading. Listening can be both direct and indirect. 4.2 Organisational communication In organisations, the focus of the communications is mainly on the flow of the communication as well as the effects thereof on managerial styles, leadership motivation in the organisation. and It covers many types of spoken and written messages. 4.3 Mass communication In mass communication the focus is mostly on large audiences. In an organisation it entails advertising in newspapers, on the radio or television where the focus is on large audiences, repeated reproduction of the message and fast distribution of messages. Feedback is the most delayed in this type of communication and the audience is the most difficult to define. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 12 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 4.4 Small-group communication This entails communication where two or three people are together and can rotate between informal (chatting) and formal. Every member of the group is encouraged to communicate to his / her full potential and the atmosphere is usually positive. 4.5 Interpersonal communication This is communication between two people and consists of a range of written and spoken messages. A great deal of all communications - also within an organisation - is interpersonal. 4.6 Public communication This level of communication describes public speaking where one person gives a talk, lecture or oral report to a group who usually does not participate. 4.7 Inter-cultural communication Communication between people from different cultures is becoming more important as more and more people from different cultures work and live together. As culture strongly influences communication styles, people from different cultures find it quite difficult to communicate. Therefore, businesses can no longer disregard the importance of inter-cultural communication. 4.8 Intrapersonal communication This is the most basic level of communication as it concerns the communication we have with ourselves. It refers to our level of thoughts, unspoken words and self-talk. We create images, sounds and feelings consciously or unconsciously that either empowers or limits us to act in a certain way. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 13 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 4.9 Non-verbal communication Processes of communication without the use of language proper, e.g., body movements, gesture, smells but also such features of speech as intonation, speed, pause, etc 4.10 Written communication Written communication can either be direct or indirect. Direct written communication refers to business letters, memos, faxes, notices, agendas and reports which are addressed to a specific individual Indirect written communication refers to newspaper reports, press releases and advertisements which are directed at the general public Exercise 1 – Communication process 1 Describe the process of communication. Communication can be defined as a two–way process whereby information (a message) is sent from one person (sender) to another person (receiver). The SENDER initiates the message after (s)he has decided what the purpose (instruct, persuade, inform) of it should be. The MESSAGE is then decoded in a form that the RECEIVER will understand and sent in a specific format via a CHANNEL (verbal, nonverbal, written, etc). The RECEIVER decodes the MESSAGE so that he / she can understand it. The RESULT suggests that communication has either taken place or not taken place. Due to various BARRIERS (noise, too many people to pass on the message, different perceptions, different cultures, etc), the send-message is seldom exactly the same as the received-message. To ensure that the RESULT of the MESSAGE is as clear as possible, FEEDBACK should be given / received 2 Choose an interpersonal experience that you feel was unsuccessful. Using the communication model, describe the barriers to effective communication that you experienced US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 14 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Learner's own answer 3 Choose an interpersonal experience that you feel was successful. Using the communication model, analyse what you think the reasons for the success of the communication were. Learner's own answer US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 15 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 2: VERBAL COMMUNICATION By the end of this chapter you will be able to: understand what verbal communication is understand how verbal communication is used in terms of tone, pitch, rhythm, articulation, projection and tempo 1 INTRODUCTION Communication consists of verbal and non-verbal messages that are exchanged among people. Research has shown that people often do not have good communication skills and that their perceptions differ, therefore these messages can easily be misunderstood. This is due to the fact that our interpretation of a message depends on our experiences, ideas, beliefs and level of understanding. We understand words only when we interpret what they mean to us. The words we use affect the way we think and feel and this in turn affects the words we choose. There is often a big difference between what we thought we said and what the listener thought he / she heard. This is the result of the filters information goes through when we give and receive messages. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 16 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2 WHAT IS VERBAL COMMUNICATION? Verbal communication involves the use of words in speaking (oral), writing, reading and listening. The majority of our time is spent communicating verbally, which can be both direct and indirect. Direct verbal communication refers to face-to-face communication with one or more people, such as during meetings, group discussions or speaking one-on-one. It includes giving instructions or listening to instructions, dealing with visitors, explaining a problem to your supervisor, etc. Indirect verbal communication refers to communication that is not face-to-face because there is no eye contact, yet the conversation takes place directly with another person such as writing, reading, telephonic and public address. Listening can be both direct and indirect. When communicating orally with someone, both the sender (the one who speaks) and the receiver (the one who listens) have certain responsibilities: Sender Receiver Is my message clear? Do I understand the message correctly? Do I have the receiver’s attention? Am I giving my full attention to the sender? What is my body language saying? Are the verbal and non-verbal messages the same? Do I know who the receiver is? Am I listening with empathy? US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 17 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 2 – Self evaluation Before reading any further, complete the following self evaluation questionnaire. Also ask a close friend / family member you can trust, to rate you honestly on the following areas3: You Friend Criteria Yes No Yes No 1. Is my voice too high? 2. Is my voice too low? 3. Do I speak too quickly? 4. Do I speak too slowly? 5. Do I speak too loudly? 6. Do I speak too softly? 7. Is my voice monotonous? 8 Do I sound weak and unassertive? 9. Does my voice project the image I want to project? Underline the appropriate choice in each case: 10. Do I speak with clenched teeth / mumble / croak? 11. Do I pause too frequently / infrequently? 12. Does my voice have any undesirable characteristics (sound harsh / breathless / throaty / croaky)? 3 Taken from “Effective Communication – Getting the message across in business, p 300 US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 18 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Now that you have completed the self-evaluation, you most probably know where your oral weaknesses are. Try to address these in the next few weeks, until you turned at least one or two of your weaknesses around. 2.1 2.1.1 Oral Communication involves ... Voice Voice refers to volume, tone and speed of speech 2.1.2 Content The content of verbal communication is the actual spoken words 2.1.3 Pitch The pitch of a voice can be high, medium or low. High Pitch: If the pitch is too high, the voice sounds shrill, tense and thin and without any authority. You need to lower your voice so your speech will be even and well-paced. This will also give you time to think and you will come across as being more relaxed and self–confident. Low Pitch: If the pitch is too low, your voice sounds harsh, husky or lacking in volume. You need to raise the pitch of your voice without straining it, so it will sound pleasing and melodious. 2.1.4 Volume Your breathing determines the loudness and volume of the voice. The listener should be able to hear you with ease and you therefore need to adjust the loudness of your voice to the size of the area you are in as well as to the occasion. You also need to vary the volume of your voice to make it interesting to listen to. Whenever you shift or change the tone, speed or volume of your voice, people will pay attention to what you are saying. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 19 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 The human voice can be compared to the sound of a violin, which is one of the most versatile and melodious musical instruments to listen to. However, the very same instrument is unbearable to the human ear when played by a novice. The human voice, like the violin, requires practice to draw the listener and create a positive impact. 2.1.5 Tempo and Rhythm Ensure that you speak at the correct tempo and rhythm. Concentrate and think about what you are saying. Speak slower when you want to emphasise important matters, whereas a lively tempo and a natural rhythm convey an energetic impression. 2.1.6 Tone The speaker’s tone conveys a specific attitude to the subject, listeners or situation. You need to control the tone of your voice to ensure it is appropriate for the occasion, i.e. friendly, helpful, authoritative, sympathetic, apologetic, informal, stern or stiff 2.1.7 Articulation Articulate words and sounds clearly using the tongue, teeth, lips, jaw and soft palate. If you articulate words clearly and accurately, people will not have to ask you to repeat what you have said. Common articulation examples in South Africa are: Extra sounds: “fillem” instead of “film” or “situhation” in stead of “situation” Omission of sounds: “secretry” in stead of “secretary” and “libry” in stead of “library” Placing the accent on the wrong syllable: “minister” in stead of “minister” and “comparable” in stead of “comparable” 2.1.8 Projection The voice must be projected in such a way that it carries over a wide area, sounds authoritative and commands attention. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 20 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Do's: Stand up straight with an “open” head and throat Look straight at the audience Articulate carefully Use a pitch that carries Speak slowly Imagine that you are “throwing” the words to the back of the room Don’ts: Speak too fast or too slow Don’t mumble Don’t be monotonous Don’t change your accent, unless it is difficult to understand Don’t use filler sounds or phrases, i.e. "like, you know, at the end of the day, um, er, okay, actually, interestingly enough, as I was saying"… etc Do not hold notes in the front of your face Do not look down or away 2.1.9 Pronunciation Our country has eleven official languages that can sometimes complicate the understanding of verbal communication. Speakers should try to pronounce words as correctly as possible and improve strong local accents or careless pronunciation. It is for these reasons that our communication needs to be accurate and with no room for error by using the tips we have provided above. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 21 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 3 – Verbal communication 1 What is verbal communication? Verbal communication involves the use of words in speaking, writing, reading and listening. 2 Name a few things that you need to remember when you are speaking to a group of people Tone of voice Pitch Volume Tempo and Rhythm Articulation Projection US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 22 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 3: NON–VERBAL COMMUNICATION By the end of this chapter you will be able to: understand what non-verbal communication is understand how eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, movements, appearance etc play a role in communicating with people understand how different cultures and the way they do things plays a role in the way we communicate with others 1 WHAT IS NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION? Have you ever heard anyone say, "His actions spoke so loudly I couldn't hear what he said?" What we do is a means of communication, subject to interpretation by others. Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to others. However, most of us fail to realise that a great deal of our communication is of a nonverbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Non-verbal communication refers to communication without words. This includes tones of voice, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, expressive movement, spatial arrangements, and patterns of touch, cultural differences, and other "non-verbal" acts of communication. It may also include the way we wear our clothes or the silence we keep. In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously, namely the verbal and non-verbal levels. If the non-verbal cues and the spoken message do not match, the flow of communication is hindered. Right or wrong, the receiver of the communication tends to base the intentions of the sender on the non-verbal cues he receives. Successful communication thus depends largely on one's ability to understand his / her own and the other person's non-verbal communication. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 23 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Non-verbal communication can strengthen, contradict, complement or substitute a verbal message. A frown, for example, can reinforce the fact that one is confused. However, if you blush while saying that you are not embarrassed; the non-verbal message contradicts the verbal message. Non-verbal communication says a lot about how one really feels, and it never lies! 1.1 1.1.1 Non-verbal communication consists of ..... Eye Contact Have you heard any of the following sayings? "Eyes are the windows to the soul" "If looks could kill…" "The ear is less trustworthy than the eye" All true! A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom. Eye contact is therefore not only important for the communicator, but also for the listener or audience as it signals whether communication channels are open or closed. 1.1.2 Facial Expression Facial expressions usually communicate emotions. These expressions show the attitudes of the communicator. Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better than others. For example, the eyes tend to reveal happiness or sadness, and even surprise. The lower face also can reveal happiness or surprise; the smile, for example, can communicate friendliness and cooperation. The lower face, brows, and forehead can also reveal anger. It is believed that verbal cues provide 7% of the meaning of the message; vocal cues, 38%; and facial expressions, 55%! This means that, as the receiver of a message, you can rely heavily US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 24 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 on the facial expressions of the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the meaning behind the message than his words. If the eyes are the window of the soul, the face must be the front entrance of the house Facial expressions are powerful when it is used to accentuate a point. Don’t: Don’t over-dramatise facial expression Don’t act it, rather perfect it Don’t be unnatural Don’t be afraid to let your face communicate Ask yourself what others see and understand if they look at your face 1.1.3 Hands / Gestures One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and personal. Clenched fists signal an aroused emotional state, as in anger, excitement (e.g., to cheer on a team), or fear. In a business meeting, unconscious fisting is a visible sign of anxiety. Tapping of fingers on the table top usually shows impatience Pointing an index finger to your conversation partner could mean that you are angry or that you want to stress whatever you are saying as being very important Open hands or palms turned upwards shows non-aggressiveness and openness. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 25 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 People who have to communicate, such as presenters, speakers, trainers, teachers, preachers, politicians, etc often assume that the audience knows and understands all words and terminology used! Take for example the word cell: This could be a jail room The basic building block of a human body Cells in an orange segment A cell phone A church meeting All too often the listener / audience is blamed for “getting the wrong picture, but maybe the communicator painted it incorrectly? Imagine this: The words you say is the paint… Your hands are the two paintbrushes… Now ask yourself the following questions: Where do I put my hands when I speak? Do my hand movements mean something? Do they explain exactly what my words are saying? The question is: "What are you painting with your hands?" 1.1.4 Movement This is an important factor to consider when giving a formal presentation or when communicating to more than one person US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 26 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Do keep in mind: Are you moving too much while you are talking? Should you rather stand / sit still? If you have to move, how, when and where? Movement is the stroke that skilfully allows the paintbrush to transform the painted picture into reality 1.1.5 Posture A clean upright posture portrays the following characteristics: US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 27 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 A bad posture portrays the following: Don’ts: Don’t lean on the counter / desk / podium Don’t sway backwards and forwards Don’t stand with your arms folded Don’t stand with hands on in your your your hips or pockets Verbal and non-verbal communication must say the same! US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 28 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 1.1.6 Personal Appearance The way a person dresses and is groomed conveys a certain attitude towards colleagues, clients and the organisation. Cleanliness, grooming and hairstyle all need attention if you want to be taken seriously. 1.1.7 Time Are you on time for meetings or are you always late? Punctuality plays a very important role in the business environment as it shows lack of discipline and lack of respect if you are always late. Following are some interpretations of a few body language signs. However, it is important not to look at these interpretations as being the only interpretation of a person's behaviour. For example, where crossed legs may be a sign of feeling threatened, it could also mean that someone is quite relaxed. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 29 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Non verbal behaviour4 Indicator Annoyance Eyebrow muscle draws the eyebrows down and toward the centre of the face Boredom A bored person looks anywhere but at the person who is talking to them. They find other things to do, from doodling to talking with others to staring around the room. They may also keep looking at their watch or a wall clock. Bored people often repeat actions such as tapping toes, swinging feet or drumming fingers. They may yawn and their whole body may sag as they slouch down in their seat, lean against a wall or just sag where they are standing. Their face may also show a distinct lack of interest and appear blank Closure – not open to Closure literally closes the body up. Arms may be folded or tightly contact. clasped or holding one another. Legs, likewise can be crossed at the, Closure is used when we feel threatened or the knee, ankle on opposite knee and the tense wrap-around. The head may be turned away from the person or tucked down. want to hide something Confidence Brisk, erect walk. Sitting with hands clasped behind head, legs crossed 4 Adapted from www.bodylanguagetraining.com, www.deltabravo.net/custody/body.htm US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 30 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Non verbal behaviour4 Indicator Deception When someone is lying, (s)he is concerned about being found out -- and this concern may show A deceptive person is anxious that (s)he might be found out and sends signals of tension - sweating, sudden movements, minor twitches of muscles (especially around the mouth and eyes), changes in voice tone and speed. There may be signs of over-control - forced smiles (mouth smiles but eyes do not), jerky movements and clumsiness A person who is trying to deceive needs to think more about what they are doing, so they may drift off or pause as they think about what to say or hesitate during speech. Shifty eyes / too much blinking could also be a sign that someone is lying or trying to hide something Defensiveness Arms crossed on chest Dejection Walking with hands in pockets, shoulders hunched Doubt, disbelief Rubbing the eyes Evaluation, thinking Hand to cheek, hands which are clasped together, either looking like they are praying, with both hands pressed together, or with linked fingers and with index fingers only pointing upwards. Another common evaluative movement is stroking, often of the chin but possibly other parts of the face Impatience Tapping or drumming fingers US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 31 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Indicator Non verbal behaviour Insecurity, nervousness Biting nails Interest Tilted head Openness Arms are not crossed and may be animated and moving. Palms are also relaxed. Legs are not crossed and can be parallel or stretched apart. The feet may point forward or to the side or at something or someone of interest. The head may be directed solely towards the other person or may be looking around. Eye contact is likely to be relaxed and prolonged Readiness, aggression Standing with hands on hips 2 CULTURE-SPECIFIC BODY LANGUAGE Non-verbal communication is also culture-specific. This can cause quite a few misunderstandings as what might be acceptable to one culture may be offensive in another. Here are some cultural specific differences: 2.1 Hand Gestures Different cultures perceive some gestures in a different light than others. In the African culture, offence is taken when you call someone with your index finger. It is viewed as an insult because it is perceived that you are calling your dog! The opposite is true for white South Africans. They believe it to be acceptable to call a person with the index finger. Asians, such as the Chinese, take offence to you rubbing their children on the head when you ask how old they are. It is perceived as hindering the growth of the child. Africans would hold their hands in the upright position with the fingers together when referring to how old a child is, whereas a white person would hold their hand flat in the horizontal position when referring to a child’s age. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 32 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2.2 Eye Contact Different cultures have different values when it comes to eye contact. Some African cultures see eye contact, or not making eye contact, as a sign of respect. They have been brought up not to look people they respect, such as parents, elders, managers etc in the eye, because it is a sign of respect. Maintaining eye contact is extremely important when doing business with the United Emirates and other western countries such as the USA, Europe and England. They perceive lack of eye contact as not to be trusted or cunning. 2.3 Standing up or Sitting Down Some African cultures have been brought up to be lower than their elders and people they respect, such as managers, customers, their parents etc. It is for this reason that they sit down when they walk into an office where they need to speak to the manager. White South Africans have been brought up to wait until they have been invited to be seated. 2.4 Facial Expression Asians, and specifically Japanese, never show facial expressions. The reason is that they have been brought up never to “lose face”. It is very difficult to read if these customers are happy or unhappy, because they don’t show emotion or facial expressions. The only way to know if they are satisfied with the service is if they actually come back. If they stay away, you know they were dissatisfied US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 33 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 4 – Non-verbal communication 1 What is non-verbal communication? Non-verbal communication refers to communication without words. 2 Give examples of non-verbal communication: Facial expression Eye Contact Gestures Movement Posture Grooming Time 3 Why is non-verbal communication so important? It never lies! It communicates what you are not saying in words with your gestures, facial expression, movement etc 4 What is the ratio of body language to verbal communication? 7% words 38% tone of voice 55% body language US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 34 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 5 How do I communicate non- verbally? Complete the checklist below and discuss it with a friend, colleague, or someone who knows you well. Ask them to give you feedback on where you should improve your non-verbal communication or Non- Verbal Checklist What improvements can be made? Do I dress comfortably? Do I dress appropriately for the occasion? Do I stand up straight? Do I always sit back in my chair? Do I stand with my arms folded? Do I stand with my hands on my hips? Do I stand at an appropriate distance from the person I am speaking to? Do I distance myself from the person I am speaking to? Do I keep my head up when talking or listening? Is the expression on my face often aggressive? (Set jaw, clenched teeth, scowl, jutting chin) Do I look nervous? (Worried frown, apologetic smile, biting of lip) Do I smile inappropriately? When angry, complaining, criticising) Do I wag my finger when I talk? Do I wave my hands about when talking? Do I fiddle with things? Do I touch people when talking to them? Do I tap my feet? US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 35 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 or Non- Verbal Checklist What improvements can be made? Do I look at people when talking to them? Do I stare at people when talking to them? Do I speak loudly? Do I speak softly? Is my voice whining? Do I hesitate (um) a lot? Do I clear my throat a lot? Do I cover my mouth when speaking? 6 Give some examples of cultural differences in communication that you have noticed in your working environment Learner's own answer US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 36 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 7 Connect the correct descriptions to the given pictures. There could be more than one correct answer Frustrated Mad Worried Self confident Angry Friendly, open Thinking; deciding Shocked, surprised Dejected Shy US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 37 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 4: SPEAKING AND LISTENING STRATEGIES By the end of this chapter you will be able to: understand the importance of listening skills understand why people do not listen understand what good listeners are understand the importance of questioning techniques understand the purpose of paraphrasing in communication understand the importance of note taking in communication 1 LISTENING SKILLS 1.1 The importance of listening Listening skills form an integral part of face-to-face communication. However, the art of listening is not a natural skill. It must be learnt and requires a lot of practice and effort. Have you ever played the “broken telephone”? This is a typical example of how wrong communication can go because incorrect listening skills are applied. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 38 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 5 – Self evaluation on listening habits Think about your own listening habits: Do you.......? ... let the speaker express thoughts fully without interrupting? ... listen and read between the lines? ... try to remember important facts? ... write down the important details of the message? ... feed the main facts back to the speaker before the conversation ends to ensure correct understanding? ... manage to listen to the speaker even if the message is dull or boring or if you do not know or like the speaker? become hostile or excited when a speaker’s views differ from your own? ... ignore distractions when listening? ... show genuine interest in the conversation? How good are your listening skills? Write down at least two that you are going to work upon during the next few weeks. I hereby commit myself to work on at least the following two bad listening skills that I have until I get positive results on the changes I make: ......................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... ................................................. ............................................ Signature US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Date Facilitator Guide 39 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 1.2 Barriers to effective listening The following factors can cause poor listening5: Cultural differences Specific speakers' and listeners' role in the organisation The perceived credibility of the speaker or listener Stereotyping Manipulative behaviour Effects of non-verbal communication Selective perception The place where listening occurs The emotions of the speaker and listener The type of technical language used The following poor listening habits can also destroy interaction: Jumping to conclusions before the speaker has finished Pretending to be listening but having a wandering mind Trying to listen to all the facts instead of listening to what is important Listening to the facts only instead of "listening" to their attitudes and emotions Refusing to listen because the listening task is too hard / uninteresting or the speaker is seen as inferior 5 Effective Communication in Organisations: Michael Fielding US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 40 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Mentally criticizing the speaker's delivery and / or appearance Being easily distracted Why do people not listen? They are probably not interested in the discussion They may be prejudiced by their own thinking and not open to other ideas They may have a negative attitude towards the speaker and / or his ideas Sometimes people are just inconsiderate, being wrapped up in their own thoughts People get bored with certain topics and their minds stray to other more interesting thoughts People are sometimes lazy and listening takes effort The receiver is responsible for listening actively during the communication process for the communication to be successful. The listener should provide constant feedback to the speaker to show that the communication is effective. This can include facial expressions, body movements, eye contact and various sounds including “Oh!” “Hmmm” It can also be done verbally by making listening noises like “I see”, “Yes, yes”; “Go on” and providing answers to questions and asking questions. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 41 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 1.3 What is a good listener? Good listeners are people who: The advantages of effective listening include the following: Achieving better interpersonal relationships Saving time, money and energy Avoiding mistakes and misunderstandings Identifying problems and grievances before it is too late Creating a working climate of openness and sensitivity Improving motivational and persuasive abilities US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 42 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 1.4 Techniques for effective listening6 Listening is an art and there are very few fixed rules. The following tips should help you become an active listener. Decide why you are listening – to get the main idea, follow directions, hear difficult material, etc Motivate yourself to listen attentively and responsively to the speaker, not just to what he / she is saying, but also to how he / she is saying it. When people are upset about something and want to talk about it, their capacity to listen is not very good. Trying to get your point across to a person who is trying to express a strong feeling will usually cause that person to try even harder to get the emotion recognised. On the other hand, once people feel that their messages and feelings have been heard, they start to relax and they have more attention available for listening. Acknowledging another person's thoughts and feelings is not necessarily agreeing with them. It ...still leaves you the option of agreeing or disagreeing with that person's point of view, actions or way of experiencing. ...still leaves you with the option of saying yes or no to a request. ...still leaves you with the option of saying more about the matter being discussed. Many people don't separate acknowledging from agreeing. The effect of this is that one person tries harder to be heard while the other tries harder not to hear – a definite recipe for disaster. People want both. They want to be understood and acknowledged on the one hand, and also approved and agreed with, on the other. With practice, one can learn to respond first with a simple acknowledgment. As you do this, you may find that, figuratively 6 Adapted from www.coopcom.org US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 43 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 speaking, you can give your conversation partners half of what they want, even if you can't give them all of what they want. That will be a giant step forward. Your conversation partners will also be more likely to acknowledge your position and experience, even if they don't sympathize with you. This mutual acknowledgment can create an emotional atmosphere in which it is easier to work toward agreement or more gracefully accommodate disagreements. Keep eye contact with the speaker Be open to the other person's ideas, etc Give feedback. As a general rule, do not just repeat another person's exact words. Summarise their experience in your own words. But in cases where people actually scream or shout something, sometimes you may want to repeat a few of their exact words in a quiet tone of voice to let them know that you have heard it just as they said it. If the emotion is unclear, make a tentative guess, as in "So it sounds like maybe you were a little unhappy about all that..." The speaker will usually correct your guess if it needs correcting. If you can identify with what the other person is experiencing, express a little of that in your tone of voice. Emotionally flat summaries feel strange and distant. Know and understand body language US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 44 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 6 – Listening skills 1 L 2 What makes a good listener? Look interested I Inquire with questions S Stay on track with the flow of the conversation T Test your understanding E Evaluate the message N Neutralise your own feelings E Empathise with the person R Respond appropriately Find a practice partner. Take turns telling events from your lives. As you listen to your practice partner, sum up your practice partner's overall experience and feelings in brief responses during the telling. Ask for feedback – is (s)he happy that you captured all the important facts and feelings? 2 QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES Good listeners will always ask questions to ensure they understand what the speaker is trying to say by listening for the main purpose or goal of the message. If you are unable to understand the clear meaning of what the sender is trying to say, you need to ask questions to clear any misunderstandings. ? Question-asking is one of the main ways that we try to get a grip on whatever is going on, but we are usually not very conscious of the quality of questions we ask. Many of the questions we have learned to ask are totally fruitless and selfdefeating (such as parents asking a pregnant teen, "Why???!!! Why have you done this to us???!!!"). In general, it will be more fruitful to ask "how" questions about the future rather than "why" questions about the past, but there are many more creative possibilities. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 45 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 As noted above, not all questions are of equal value. Many are a waste of effort but a few can be amazingly helpful. Asking conscious, creative and exploratory questions of others, of oneself, and about one's situation or task at hand, is a tool that everyone can use with great success. According to Donald Schön7 in The Reflective Practitioner, we use questions to make a kind of 'space' in our minds for things we do not know yet (in the sense of understand), or have not decided yet, or have not invented yet, or have not discovered yet. The answer will involve a complex mix of discovering, inventing, understanding, and deciding, all pulled together partly by the creative power of the question. Asking questions can allow us to start thinking about the unknown, because questions focus our attention, and provide a theme for continued exploration. Questions are like the mountain climber's hook-on-the-end-of-a-rope: we throw the hook into the unknown, and we pull ourselves into the future. But we need to learn how and where to throw, so that we pull ourselves into a better future. There are two basic types of questions one can ask: Open-ended questions are much more inviting of a wide range of responses. Even if our goal is to persuade, we can't do a good job of that unless we address our listener's concerns, and we won't understand those concerns unless we ask questions that invite discussion. When one is under time pressure, it is tempting to ask closed questions, pushing people to make "yes-no" decisions. But pressing forward without addressing people's concerns is not such a good idea and has played a key role in many on-the-job accidents and catastrophes (such as the Challenger Space Shuttle explosion). 2.1 Open-ended questions Open-ended questions allow for a wide range of responses and have no restriction on the answer. It opens debates, establishes a range of issues that are relevant to the discussion, generates participation and openness and gives the control or responsibility to the other person for his / her own answers. 7 Adapted form www.coopcom.org US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 46 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 “What”, “How?”, “Why?”, “When?”, “Where?” and “Who?” are often used to begin an open-ended question? Also, “What do you think…” “Tell me more about…” etc. 2.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions Advantages They help to show the listener's way of thinking and priorities They give the listener freedom to construct an answer It shows how much the listener knows It helps to build a good relationship because the questions do not imply a judgement It opens up communication Disadvantages It takes time and energy to ask and answer It makes it more difficult to control the conversation 2.2 Closed questions Closed questions are restrictive and the listener is required to give only a “yes” or “no” answer. There is no additional information forthcoming to clarify the message to the listener. 2.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of closed questions Advantages It saves time It allows the speaker to control the flow of information It enables the speaker to obtain exact information It enables the speaker to obtain a lot of information in a short time US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 47 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 It helps a shy listener to start talking Disadvantages It limits the replies It can turn a conversation into an interrogation and the listener can become defensive if too many closed-questions are used It restricts the listener's choices of answer and need to explain 2.3 Prompting questions When you are listening to a speaker or trainer or when you need to explain to someone how something works, use prompting questions to promote understanding. Prompting means you keep asking until you get a satisfactory answer or until the receiver understands the message. You can use the following prompting techniques: Rephrase: Maybe the person didn't understand the question, or it was unclear. Ask the question again by using other words. Simplify: If the question is too difficult, try asking a simpler question. Give clues: Questions such as: “What does that tell you about….” Refer to other knowledge: Sometimes a person doesn’t realise he/ she knows the answer. You can refer to things they already know. Simplify the structure of the question: Instead of asking a What? question, you can use a question where the person has to make a choice between two alternatives “Would you prefer …. or ….?” US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 48 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 7 - Questions 1 What is the purpose of asking questions? Questions are asked to clarify understanding or to get more information on a subject 2 What type of questions do we get? Open questions Closed questions 3 What is wrong with the following questions? Make sure you read them very carefully as most of them are not as easy as they might look. How would you treat such questions? 3.1 Why do you make newsprint like this and what do you think of the method? This is actually two questions in one. Refer each back to the questioner. Then answer each part separately. 3.2 What can we do to make you happier so that you can become more productive? The question has a false assumption in, namely that happiness and productivity go hand-in-hand. Point this implication out to the reader and ask him / her to rephrase the question 3.3 This job calls for a lot of work at night. You don't mind late work, do you? This is a leading question as it forces you into answering "yes". Ask the questioner to rephrase the question 3.4 Would you be for or against voting for Moses Tsotetsi as shop steward? This question is emotionally loaded as you have to make a choice about someone. State politely that you would rather not answer the question as it has been phrased. Ask the questioner to rephrase the question US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 49 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 4 What would you do if .....? 4.1 The question is off the point? Ask the questioner to rephrase the question without insulting him 4.2 You think that you know what the question is going to be before the questioner has finished speaking? Stop yourself from completing the question yourself. Hear the questioner out. 4.3 You do not know the answer to the questions Don't try to bluff your way through. Admit that you do not know. 4.4 For some reason you prefer not to answer the question. State honestly that you would rather not answer the question 5 What can you do to ensure that you don't make the same mistakes when asking questions? Learner's own answer 6 What is a prompting question? Prompting means you keep asking until you get a satisfactory answer or until the receiver understands the message. 7 Describe 5 prompting techniques. Rephrasing a question means ask the question again by using other words Simplify a question if the question is too difficult by asking a simpler question Give clues to help the person understand such as: “What does that tell you about….” Refer to other knowledge to lead the listener to the answer for a question. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 50 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Simplify the structure of the question: Instead of asking a what? question, you can use a question where the person has to make a choice between two alternatives (Would you prefer …. or ….?) 3 PARAPHRASING If the listener needs to clarify a message with the speaker, the listener could reword or summarise the question by asking for example: “Do I understand correctly that you need information on the amount of paper distributed to the Gauteng region over the last month?" Or “Can I confirm that your number is 082 585 7922?” 4 TAKING NOTES If your manager is giving you a new assignment or teaching you something you know little about, it would be wise to take notes to assist you in remembering what he said or what is especially applicable to you. You need to have a note pad and pen to make your notes. Remember the following: Listen attentively to what is being said or read a given text carefully Use sub-headings, numbered points, abbreviations, capitals and underlining for main points, and dashes rather than other punctuation marks. Omit unnecessary words – use words such as nouns and verbs that carry meaning Don’t attempt to take down complete sentences Maintain the style of the original. i.e. formal / informal Insert the missing links to expand concise notes into a readable, coherent, properly constructed whole US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 51 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 8 – Note taking 1 How would you go about taking notes during a meeting or lecture? Listen attentively to what is being said or read a given text carefully Use sub-headings, numbered points, abbreviations, capitals and underlining for main points, and dashes rather than other punctuation marks. Omit unnecessary words – use words such as nouns and verbs that carry meaning Don’t attempt to take down complete sentences Maintain the style of the original. i.e. formal / informal Insert the missing links to expand concise notes into a readable, coherent, properly constructed whole 2 Ask the trainer for Unit Standards 8963 and 13202 and / or discuss note-taking with an expert and include more note-taking tips to your list The following are some examples / guidelines Use abbreviations instead of writing out words; Don’t rewrite everything. Refer to diagrams, sketches or summaries in your textbook; Use symbols to draw attention to important words: Encircle underline, use bold type, use arrows to connect ideas, use different font types. Use colour. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 52 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Use punctuation marks (dashes -, question marks ? and exclamations ! to draw attention to important aspects of the work. Add illustrations. Write on one side of the paper only, if possible. Use the other side to add references, new ideas or links. Leave plenty of space throughout your notes – you may want to add important points from other sources later. Leave out word such as the, and, it is which is, a, etc. Start a new line for each new point. Use headings and sub-headings. Use bullets or number facts. 3 Practise your note-taking skills by taking notes in meetings, lectures, when your wife / mother / partner gives you some work to do for him / her, etc. Copies of these notes have to be included in you portfolio of evidence Check for at least 5 different copies of notes in the learner's portfolio US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 53 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATIONS By the end of this chapter you will be able to: know how to conquer your fear of speaking in public understand the basics of public speech / presentation 1 INTRODUCTION You arrive at work on Monday morning – chirpy and full of energy! You feel confident and ready for the new week. Suddenly everything changes! Your plant manager sees you walking towards the control room and decides there and then that it's your turn to make a presentation at the morning meeting that morning. Speaking in front of a group of people is a common source of stress for almost everyone. Although many of us would like to avoid this problem entirely, it is not always possible to do. Whether we work alone or with large numbers of people, eventually we will need to speak in public to get certain tasks accomplished. And if we want to be leaders or achieve anything meaningful in our lives, we will often need to speak to groups, large and small, to be successful. However, the truth about public speaking is that it does not have to be stressful! If you understand what causes you to stress and you keep some simple principles in mind, you will soon be one of those people others look at and think "Wow! I wish I could be as smart, calm and witty as ..." 1.2 A checklist for your presentation To create an effective presentation / speech takes time and planning. Following are a few pointers to help you in preparing for that presentation you have to make. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 54 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Start preparing early; don't wait until the last minute to prepare Start as early as you can with the preparation for your presentation. Make sure that you have enough time to practise your entire presentation before a group of your colleagues or friends. Think about your audience Who they are and why they are here; what their interests are; what they know; what they want to know; what would be a worthwhile investment in their time. Know your purpose Is your proposal aimed at informing or persuading? Make sure you tell your audience what you are going to do. Use an effective introduction Orient the audience; explain why your presentation is important; set the tone, establish a relationship between yourself and the audience; establish credibility and avoid weak introductions such as apologies, jokes and rhetorical questions Organise your presentation clearly and simply Prioritise topics and allocate time accordingly Keep to 3 - 5 main points Use supporting materials to focus on main points Use examples, statistics, expert opinions, etc Use simple words, simple sentences, markers, repetition, images, personal language ("You" and "I") US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 55 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Create an effective conclusion Summarise Set the final image Provide closure Don't trail off Don't just present data or summarised results and leave the audience to draw its own conclusions. You have had much more time to work with your information than your audience. Share your insight and understanding and tell them what you've concluded from your work Sound spontaneous and speak enthusiastically Use key phrases in your notes so you don't have to read, use the overhead projector instead of notes; vary volume, don't be afraid of silence, don't use fillers like "um"... Use body language effectively Relaxed gestures, eye contact; don't play with a pen or pointer, don't block visual aids Use visual aids to enhance the message Use visuals to reinforce and clarify, not overwhelm Keep visual aids uncluttered Use titles to guide the audience Don't block the audience's vision; limit the time your back is to the audience Make sure you know how to operate the equipment; practise it ahead of time; have backup cords, bulbs, adapters, etc. Prepare for the worst! US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 56 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Make sure you know the lighting requirements for your equipment; know where the switches are and what settings are needed; bring a small penlight in case the room has to be darkened and you need to see notes or equipment Analyse the environment Check out the size of the room, placement of chairs, time of day, temperature, distractions, etc Cope with stage fright Cope with stage fright by remembering that it's normal; it can be helpful, everyone feels it. Also read the following tips. 1.3 Tips on overcoming the fear of speaking in public8 It is important to know that you don't have to be brilliant to be successful. You can make mistakes, be tongue-tied or even forget parts of your speech. No-one will really care as long as you give them something of value. If your audience walks away feeling that they have learned something, they will consider you a success. This does not mean that you have to deliver mountains of facts or details to give your audience what they want. People remember very few of the facts or information speakers express, therefore you only need to make two or three main points to have your talk be successful. The third important thing to remember is to determine what the purpose of your speech / talk is. Remember, the purpose of public speaking is not for you to get something (approval, fame, respect, sales, clients, etc.) from your audience, but rather to give something useful to them. 8 Adapted from: How To Conquer Public Speaking Fear by Morton C. Orman, M.D US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 57 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Do not try to be like somebody else – be yourself. Be natural. No matter what type of person you are, or what skills and talents you possess, stand up in front of others and fully be yourself! While you will eventually find your own style of public speaking, certain tricks can be used by almost everyone. Two of these, humility and humour, can go a long way to making your talks more enjoyable and entertaining for your audience. Be humble in front of others. Do not be afraid to admit that you have weaknesses and can make mistakes, or that you do not know all the answers to the questions. By admitting it, you become more credible and more believable and you create a safe climate where others can acknowledge their personal shortcomings as well. If being humorous feels comfortable, use it. It usually works, even if you don't do it perfectly. One thing that adds to the fear of public speaking is the fear people have that something awful, terrible, or publicly humiliating will happen to them. Fortunately, it never happens! But, should something happen - positive or negative – make sure that you always use it to your own advantage. Also remember that you don't have to control the behaviour of your audience to deliver a successful presentation. Although there are certain things you do need to control such as your own thoughts, your preparation and arrangements for audio-visual aids, how the room is laid out, etc., you don't have to control your audience. They will do whatever they do, despite of what you do. If people are fidgety or restless, don't try to control this. If someone is talking to a neighbour, or reading the newspaper, or falling asleep, leave them alone. If people look like they aren't paying attention, refrain from disciplining them. Unless someone is being intentionally disruptive, there is very little you need to control. Preparation is useful for any public appearance. However, how you prepare and how much time you need to spend are other matters entirely. Make sure your preparation is adequate, but do not over-prepare. Over-preparation usually means you either don't know your subject well or you do, but you don't feel confident about your ability to speak about it in public. In the former instance, you'll need to do some extra research. In the latter, you'll need to develop trust in your natural ability to speak successfully. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 58 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 The last principle to remember is that your audience truly wants you to succeed. Most of them are scared to death of public speaking, just like you. They know the risk of embarrassment, humiliation, and failure you take every time you present yourself in public. They will have empathy with you and admire your courage. And they will be on your side, no matter what happens. This also means that most audiences are truly forgiving. While a mistake of any kind might seem a big deal to you, it's not very meaningful or important to them. Their judgements and appraisals will usually be much more lenient than yours. It's useful to remember this, especially when you think you've performed poorly. Exercise 9 – Presentation skills 1 Listen to a presentation made by one of your managers or a speech made by a politician on TV or radio and evaluate the presentation according to the following checklist: During the presentation, the presenter: Yes Somewhat No Set the stage by explaining the objective of the discussion and the time limit. Opened with a dynamic, attention-grabbing opener Used a variety of presentation techniques Encouraged multiple responses to questions. Acknowledged and accepted responses. Showed awareness of audience body language. Used paraphrases to encourage responses. Used recaps to close off discussion and summarise. Avoided expressing own opinion until the conclusion. Ensured that everyone had a chance to participate. Kept the discussion on topic. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 59 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Used body language to make audience feel comfortable. Controlled time effectively. Recapped the presentation at the end. The hand-out distributed: Yes Somewhat No Is clearly written. Is well organised. 2 What is a monotone presentation and what effect does a monotone presentation have on an audience? Monotone is when the speaker speaks with one tone of voice. He does not change the pace, tone or pitch of his voice. It sounds boring and people do not listen because there is no variety in the presentation US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 60 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 6: MANIPULATIVE / BIASED LANGUAGE By the end of this chapter you will be able to: understand what biased language is understand manipulative language 1 INTRODUCTION One of the greatest challenges we face in today's multi-ethnic, multi-cultural society is that of communication: how to communicate across all communities, in all languages, respecting all socio-cultural sensitivities 2 BIASED LANGUAGE The ways in which we use language say a great deal about ourselves and our attitudes toward others. Biased language makes unnecessary distinctions about gender, race, age, economic class, sexual orientation, religion, politics, or any other personal information that's not necessary to a text's argument or intent. Sometimes we take biased language for granted like when we use the masculine pronoun "he" to refer to both men and women. Whenever you are talking to someone, either individually or in a more formal setting, keep in mind that your audience may include people from a variety of different backgrounds. Unless you wish to intentionally exclude or offend some of your listeners, you should avoid language that could be interpreted as biased on the basis of sex, age, physical ability, and ethnic or racial identity. Instead, use language that is inclusive and avoids unintended stereotypes, and refer to people and groups using labels they prefer. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 61 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2.1 Sexist language Although some experts have argued that he, his, and him do actually refer to both sexes, studies have shown that many women do not feel included by the use of these pronouns. Therefore, avoid the generic use of he, his, and him when referring to pronouns that do not indicate gender. Use plural pronouns: Instead of: A learner must be able to present his ideas clearly to his assessor. Say: Learners must be able to present their ideas clearly to their assessor. Drop the pronoun: Say: A learner must be able to present ideas clearly to assessors. Change the point of view, when appropriate: Say: As a learner, you must be able to present your ideas clearly to your assessor. Rewrite the sentence to eliminate the pronoun: From the learner, it demands an ability to present ideas clearly; from the assessor, a willingness to attend carefully When a pronoun is required, use the all-inclusive "he or she" or "her or him." When you use this construction, use the alphabetical arrangement: A learner must be able to present her / his ideas clearly to her / his assessor. 2.2 Ageist language The concept of aging is changing as people are living longer and more active lives. Be aware of stereotyping (decrepit, senile) and avoid mentioning age unless it is relevant. Although senior citizens have become a general term for the older population, many find it offensive. Similarly, the elderly implies weakness / frailty to some. Unfavourable terms, as well as informal ones such as old folks, seniors, and golden agers should also be avoided. More importantly, avoid language that stereotypes older people as mentally or physically enfeebled. Rather try to find a label that describes more specifically the population or person you have in mind such as people over sixty-five, retirees, etc. Even the term older people, although vague, implies nothing negative. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 62 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 2.3 Language based against people with disabilities Avoid language that implies pity, like victim or cripple, when referring to persons with illnesses or disabilities. The terms disability and disabled are generally preferred over handicap or crippled. When referring to individuals with specific disabilities, first be sure that mentioning the disability is necessary. If it is, be as accurate as possible and refer to the person first, the illness or disability second. If it is not, do not mention it at all. 2.4 Ethnically or racially biased language Ethnic and racial insults are unacceptable in any discussion. However, it is not as clear-cut what labels are most acceptable for identifying specific ethnic and racial groups. Following are some general guidelines: Race or ethnicity should only be noted if it is relevant to the discussion The words "white" or "black" should not be used as nouns, but as adjectives: white people, black people etc. There are some South Africans who take exception to specific labels such as "coloured", preferring a more generic term such as "black person". A good rule of thumb in these situations is to ask how people describe themselves. The phrase "ethnic group" should be used instead of "tribe" - a term that is associated with negative racial stereotyping. Another concern is language that may suggest ethnic or racial stereotypes. Avoid unsupported generalisations about racial or ethnic groups, as well as racially based assumptions about individuals. 2.5 Other biased language Avoiding patronising or demeaning expressions: These are expressions which can offend, regardless of intention. References to age, sex, religion, race, and the like US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 63 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 should only be included if they are relevant. For example do not use the word "girl." Many women and men find this term offensive. Call females over the age of 18 "women," not "girls," "chicks," or "ladies." Use parallel terms for women and men. Use "men and women," "ladies and gentlemen," "girls and boys," "husband and wife," (not "man and wife"). Also avoid using "feminine" or "woman" as modifiers. Saying a person is a "woman lawyer" or a "woman tennis player" implies that she is an exception to the rule. The same applies to terms like "male nurse" and "career girl." The term "feminine logic" illustrates the most negatively biased use of the modifier tactic since it implies lack of logic. Mention a person's sexual orientation only when it is relevant to the topic at hand and use objective, non-judgemental terminology. The term homosexual to describe a man or woman is increasingly replaced by the terms gay for men and lesbian for women. Homosexual as a noun is sometimes used only in reference to a male. Among homosexuals, certain terms (such as queer and dyke) that are usually considered offensive have been gaining acceptance in recent years. However, it is still wise to avoid these terms in standard contexts. Avoiding language that excludes or unnecessarily emphasises differences. Use the genderless "one," "person," and "individual." To avoid misunderstanding and stereotyping, use man, men, or mankind sparingly when the meaning is inclusive of both women and men. Replacements might include person, people, human being(s), human race, humankind, humans, men and women, women and men, or society. Instead of focusing on the maleness or femaleness of a job or roles held by the different sexes, use neutral replacements such as police officer instead of policeman, worker instead of workman, supervisor instead of foreman, etc 3 MANIPULATIVE LANGUAGE Our culture, education and experience lead us to interpret the world around us in a particular way. Therefore, speakers / writers are affected by the business, political and religious views of their audience. They deliver a speech / talk for their target audience, which could be male, female, conservative, liberal, predominantly US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 64 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 black, predominantly white, sexist, etc. Depending on whom the target audience is, the speaker will thus “colour” the conversation / talk to suit the audience of the message. Manipulative language thus refers to the process of “colouring” a speech / conversation / report in such a way to give the listener / reader a favourable or unfavourable impression. Have you noticed how different magazines, such as the “You” will have different types of articles to that of “Car”, or how articles in “The Star" will differ to that of “The Sun”? These are examples of different age groups reading different types of news. “The Sun” is far more emotional in its presentation of articles, whereas other daily newspapers are a lot more factual. When communicating with people, the same principle applies. Your communication is focused at the target audience. A motivational speaker will build up to a big hype by working on the emotions of the audience. He will not necessarily have statistics to prove what he is saying and base most of his information on emotions and feelings. The CEO of the company will have a very different way of bringing his message across, because his target audience will include shareholders, stakeholders, employees and the public at large. He needs to set a different tone and bring news that he knows will satisfy them. The tone of this presentation will be that of facts and figures, comparing the past to the present, focusing on goals that have been achieved, etc. The CEO will want the company to “look” good, and will therefore present his facts in such a way that even negative situations are painted with rosy tints. Even advertisements are manipulated to draw the right target audience. There is a play on words to draw buyers with low costs, low maintenance and high return on investment? If you read between the lines you will know that they are taking you for a ride, but by using the right tone, the right words, and the right approach, many viewers / readers will fall for the deal. When using manipulative language, speakers tend to: report out of context use a lot of emotional language give incorrect statistical information report selectively or incompletely US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 65 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 use words that lack a clear and distinct meaning use generalisations or overgeneralisations use words with more than one meaning use euphemisms use big words exaggerate leave important information out Exercise 10 – Manipulative language 1 What is the difference between biased and manipulative language? Manipulative or selective writing refers to the process of “colouring” a report / speech in a certain way to give the viewer, listener or reader a favourable or unfavourable impression whereas biased language makes unnecessary distinctions about gender, race, age, economic class, sexual orientation, religion, politics, or any other personal information that's not necessary to a text's argument or intent. 2 Where do you most commonly find manipulative language? Newspapers / Magazines Television Politicians Advertisements US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 66 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 3 How are articles manipulated? Report out of context Use a lot of emotional language Give incorrect statistical information Use biased visual material Report selectively or incompletely 4 How are speeches / talks manipulated? Exaggeration Use a lot of emotional language Give incorrect statistical information Manipulative body language Report selectively or incompletely Learners' own answers 5 Describe in your own words what the following biased language means: 5.1 Language bias in terms of age: Learner's own answer 5.2 Language bias in terms of gender: Learner's own answer 5.3 Language bias in terms of race: Learner's own answer 5.4 Language that excludes or unnecessarily emphasizes differences: Learner's own answer HIV / AIDS is a topic that has received much coverage over the past couple of years. The government and religious groups seem to have different stances on the topic. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 67 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 6 Below is an article written from a religious perspective. See if you can identify manipulative / biased language in the article and compare it to some of the examples we have supplied you with. Condoms Don’t Work9 – Napier DURBAN - The head of the Catholic Bishops' Conference in Southern Africa, Cardinal Wilfred Napier, criticised the government yesterday for promoting condoms in the fight against HIV/Aids "when it's clearly not working". Cardinal Napier said only a drastic change in sexual behaviour would stop the spread of the disease. "Why can't we follow the example of Uganda that successfully reduced its infection rate from about 29% to five percent in just 10 years?" Cardinal Napier said in Uganda everyone from the top down, starting with the President, preached the same message: "Change your behaviour -change your behaviour." He said in Uganda condoms were never a consideration because the country's entire campaign was focused on abstinence, which the SA government said was part of its campaign, while still distributing condoms. Cardinal Napier said 10% of people living in SA were Catholics, and the church was involved in homebased care and the administering of anti-retrovirals with the help of government. "There's no medical evidence to prove condoms prevent the transmission of Aids, and it's only 70% to 75% effective in preventing pregnancy," said Cardinal Napier. "Government speaks about moral regeneration, but it does not think how the promotion of condoms affects human behaviour." He said the church would never promote condoms, as it was against birth control and pre-marital sex. 9 The Citizen 25 January 2005 US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 68 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 But where one marriage partner had Aids and the other not, it would be up to that couple to decide whether or not to use condoms or to abstain from sex. Cardinal Napier said he did not have first-hand knowledge to comment on reports that the Catholic Church in Spain agreed to work with the government to support the use of condoms. That was followed by a similar statement from the Roman Catholic Church in the UK, but the Spanish church then apparently changed its stance following a rebuke from the Vatican. • The Health Department yesterday rejected Napier’s comments that condoms do prevent HIV/Aids. The correct use of condoms protected people from sexual infections, it said, urging the public to ignore "misleading comments" and to use condoms. - Sapa Examples of biased / manipulative language are: 6.1 DURBAN - The head of the Catholic Bishops' Conference in Southern Africa, Cardinal Wilfred Napier, criticised the government yesterday for promoting condoms in the fight against HIV/Aids "when it's clearly not working. On what grounds is he saying it is not working? 6.2 "Why can't we follow the example of Uganda that successfully reduced its infection rate from about 29% to five percent in just 10 years?" What evidence does he have to support these statistics? 6.3 "There's no medical evidence to prove condoms prevent the transmission of Aids, and it's only 70% to 75% effective in preventing pregnancy," said Cardinal Napier. What is he basing his findings on? Where does he get the statistics? 6.4 Cardinal Napier said in Uganda everyone from the top down, starting with the President, preached the same message: "Change your behaviour -change your behaviour." The tone is very accusing towards the government 6.5 "Government speaks about moral regeneration, but it does not think how the promotion of condoms affects human behaviour." US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 69 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Is this not supporting that the government is in fact trying to do something about the prevention of HIV / AIDS? US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 70 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 CHAPTER 7: SHAPE OR DECODE UNFAMILIAR VOCABULARY By the end of this chapter you will be able to: understand how words and sentences are formed know various technical terms 1 INTRODUCTION Language is made up of units of sound and units of meaning. Letters or sounds form words and words form sentences. Do you always understand everything you read or hear? When you are listening to a report or attending a training session where technical detail is shared, you may come across words that are either familiar or unfamiliar to you. When something is related to the job, you might understand what the person is talking about because you are familiar with the working environment. However, a novice might not know what the words mean, because the speaker is referring to “jargon” specific to the paper industry. Following are some of the techniques that are used to put thoughts across. When you understand these, some of the unfamiliar words / terms you come across might be easier to understand: Syntax involves the rules of building sentences. Words have to follow a sequence to make it logical. The structure of a sentence influences its meaning. By looking at the syntax, you can determine which parts of a sentence belong together or which part of the sentence is being described. US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 71 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Contextual clues: It happens many times that one does not understand every word one hears, but the context in which these words appear, helps you to understand the meaning of the conversation / speech, etc. The meaning of an unfamiliar word can thus be determined by looking at its position in a sentence, for example "The main sources of toxic emission in a pulp and paper mill complex are as follows..." Even if you didn't know that "emission" has to do with pollution, the fact that it is preceded by the word "toxic" indicates that it has something to do with pollution. Simile: A comparison between two things using the words as or like for example as dead as a doornail, as white as a sheet, come down like a ton of bricks, etc. A simile always states what the two things or persons being compared, have in common. Metaphor: A metaphor is also a comparison between two people or things that are usually unconnected, without using “as” and “like”. One thing, with a quality similar to another, is said to be the other such as a “glaring mirror”, “food for thought”, “leave no stone unturned”; “she is a rose”, etc. The point of comparison is usually implied rather than stated. Neologism refers to the use of new words which are formed by adding –ise, and -isation to existing words. Some of these newly coined words are well established and useful such as publicise, finalise, computerise, hospitalisation, etc. Colloquial: Is the language one normally uses in informal contexts, at home or with friends. It is not as informal as slang and not as formal as Standard English. Slang: An expression commonly used in spoken language which is not acceptable in formal English such as "catch ye later" instead of "see you later". Slang has no place in formal writing or speaking as it can be offensive. Jargon: The word "jargon" describes any language that is hard to understand as it contains many technical-, long and unfamiliar- and / or unnecessary words and long, complicated sentences or stock phrases. It can also be described as "a private language specific to a profession". "Please find enclosed ...." is an example of business jargon, whereas "Chemical engineering stiochiometry is the study of material US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 72 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 balances, energy balances and the chemical laws of combining masses as applied to industrial processes10" is an example of pulp and paper jargon. Dialect: A dialect is a variation of standard language that is only spoken in a specific area. It has its own non-standard vocabulary, pronunciation or idioms. Acronyms: An acronym is a word formed from the initial letters of other words, such as AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). Irony: Saying the opposite of what is meant such as "You are a bright one" for someone who has blundered. The tone of voice often indicates that the speaker has an ironical intention. Antonyms: Words of opposite meaning. Weak is the opposite (antonym) of strong. Synonyms: Words of the same meaning. Lazy and indolent are synonyms. Prefixes: A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to qualify the meaning. A prefix thus changes the word's meaning or forms a new word for example prescribe and post-script can be formed form the word script. 2 TECHNICAL TERMS Every industry, organisation and even small business has some type of jargon that is common knowledge only between people who are / have been working in that specific area. Try to decode the following paragraph and write it over in "plain" English. Abdominal aortic aneurysm involves a dilation, stretching, or ballooning of the aorta. The exact cause is unknown, but risk factors include atherosclerosis and hypertension. Abdominal aortic aneurysm may be caused by infection, congenital weakening of the connective tissue component of the artery wall, or trauma.11 10 N5 Paper Production 11 Medical Encyclopaedia US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 73 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 ......................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................ Did you understand at all what the paragraph was trying to tell you? This is typical medical jargon which a medical doctor would most definitely understand. Now read the following article and try to decode it: Most pulp mills use short pulpwood (2.4 metres) as feedstock. The fact that drum debarkers’ efficiency and throughput is highest when debarking logs below 3m in length has further popularised short-wood storage practices. Can you understand this better than the previous article? I sure hope so as this comes from pulp and paper learning material. But, should you give this to a doctor, he / she would not be able to understand everything. In the pulp and paper industry there are various terms that are very specific to the industry. This includes: processes such as coagulation, defibrillation, consistency, hydrophobic, etc names of specific pulp and paper machines / equipment such as debarkers, refiners, foudrinier, etc materials such as pigment, caustic, lignin, celluloses, guar, etc chemicals such as CaCO3, Mg(HCO3)2, MgCl2, etc methods such as mechanical pulping, chemical pulping, sodium zeolite softening, etc units of measure such as kPa, MVA, kWh, etc acronyms such as CSF, LC, HC, MC, LIC, etc In addition there are also formulas, properties, instruments, etc US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 74 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Exercise 11 – Industry specific terms How many industry specific terms do you know and understand? Take a notebook with you to work for the next few days and write down all unfamiliar (or familiar) technical terms that you hear as well as their meaning. If you don't know the meaning, ask someone who might know, or look it up in a dictionary, on the internet or any other source that you know of. Make yourself a dictionary of as much industry jargon as you can. Learner's own answer US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 75 Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005 Bibliography Michael Fielding: Effective Communication in Organizations The Citizen 25 January 2005 N5 Paper Production Medical Encyclopaedia Coating and Paper Properties – N4 p 49 – 51 Morton C. Orman, M.D: How to Conquer Public Speaking Fear Websites https://mit.imoat.net: The Mayfield handbook of technical and scientific writing www.neu.edu/styleguide wwwfac.worcester.edu: On-line writing lab www.cwrl.utexas.edu www.coopcom.org: Article by Dennis Rivers US 8962 / 119454Oral Communication 2 Facilitator Guide 76