Download 2 what is verbal communication?

A Communications Fundamental for the Pulp and Paper Industry
ORAL COMMUNICATION 2
Facilitator Guide
NQF Level: 2
Credits: 5
Unit Standard: 8962 / 119454
Compiled by:
Antoinette Manelis
Brigitte Els
for
FIETA
Sparrow Research and Industrial Consultants © July 2005
Oral Communication 2
Learning Outcomes
Upon studying this module, the learner will be able to:

explain what communication is

understand the types of communication

understand what verbal communication is

understand how verbal communication is used in terms of tone, pitch, rhythm,
articulation, projection and tempo

understand what non-verbal communication is

understand how eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, movements, appearance etc
play a role in communicating with people

understand how different cultures and the way they do things plays a role in the way we
communicate with others

understand the importance of listening skills

understand why people do not listen

understand what good listeners are

understand the importance of questioning techniques

understand the purpose of paraphrasing in communication

understand the importance of note taking in communication

know how to conquer your fear of speaking in public

understand the basics of public speech / presentation
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
understand what biased language is

understand manipulative language

understand how words and sentences are formed

know various technical terms
Unit Standard
Unit Standard 8962: Maintain and adapt oral communication
SO 1
Use a variety of speaking and listening strategies to maintain communication
SO 2
Adapt speech to accommodate socio-cultural sensitivities without losing own meaning
SO 3
Shape or decode meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary or constructions
SO 4
Organise and present information in a focused and coherent manner
SO 5
Identify and explain how speaker influence audiences
Recommended Reading
Reading skills 2: Unit Standard 8963
Study Skills 1: Unit Standard 13202
Oral Communication 3: Unit Standard 8968
Reading Skills 3: Unit Standard 8969
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION........................................................ 6
1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 6
2
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION ......................................................................... 7
3
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? ...................................................................................... 9
4
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................11
4.1
Verbal / oral communication ..................................................................................11
4.2
Organisational communication ..............................................................................12
4.3
Mass communication ............................................................................................12
4.4
Small-group communication ..................................................................................13
4.5
Interpersonal communication ................................................................................13
4.6
Public communication ...........................................................................................13
4.7
Inter-cultural communication .................................................................................13
4.8
Intrapersonal communication ................................................................................13
4.9
Non-verbal communication ...................................................................................14
4.10
Written communication..........................................................................................14
CHAPTER 2: VERBAL COMMUNICATION..........................................................................16
1
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................16
2
WHAT IS VERBAL COMMUNICATION? ......................................................................17
2.1
Oral Communication involves ... ............................................................................19
CHAPTER 3: NON–VERBAL COMMUNICATION ................................................................23
1
WHAT IS NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION? .............................................................23
1.1
2
Non-verbal communication consists of ..... ............................................................24
CULTURE-SPECIFIC BODY LANGUAGE ...................................................................32
2.1
Hand Gestures ......................................................................................................32
2.2
Eye Contact ..........................................................................................................33
2.3
Standing up or Sitting Down ..................................................................................33
2.4
Facial Expression..................................................................................................33
CHAPTER 4: SPEAKING AND LISTENING STRATEGIES ..................................................38
1
LISTENING SKILLS......................................................................................................38
1.1
The importance of listening ...................................................................................38
1.2
Barriers to effective listening .................................................................................40
1.3
What is a good listener?........................................................................................42
1.4
Techniques for effective listening ..........................................................................43
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2
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................45
2.1
Open-ended questions ..........................................................................................46
2.2
Closed questions ..................................................................................................47
2.3
Prompting questions .............................................................................................48
3
PARAPHRASING .........................................................................................................51
4
TAKING NOTES ...........................................................................................................51
CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATIONS .........................................................................................54
1
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................54
1.2
A checklist for your presentation ...........................................................................54
1.3
Tips on overcoming the fear of speaking in public .................................................57
CHAPTER 6: MANIPULATIVE / BIASED LANGUAGE .........................................................61
1
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................61
2
BIASED LANGUAGE....................................................................................................61
3
2.1
Sexist language ....................................................................................................62
2.2
Ageist language ....................................................................................................62
2.3
Language based against people with disabilities ...................................................63
2.4
Ethnically or racially biased language ...................................................................63
2.5
Other biased language ..........................................................................................63
MANIPULATIVE LANGUAGE .......................................................................................64
CHAPTER 7: SHAPE OR DECODE UNFAMILIAR VOCABULARY .....................................71
1
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................71
2
TECHNICAL TERMS ....................................................................................................73
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

explain what communication is

understand the types of communication
1
INTRODUCTION
George is a worker at a pulp and paper manufacturing plant. Looking at a day in his life, the
following seems to be some of the main events in which communication plays a vital role:
At the early hour of 05h00, George is woken by his alarm. At 05h15, he jogs to the nearby gym
where he works out every weekday morning.
On his way, he cheerfully greets a nearby
neighbour who walks his dog. At the gym, he meets with some of his friends and they have a
hearty discussion on the rugby of the previous night. This continues for the duration of their
work-out, their shower and all the way to work.
At work, George has to attend the early-morning meeting where everything that happened
during the night is discussed. As he is one of the more senior men on the shift, he asks various
questions to ensure that he and everyone else knows exactly what's important for their day's
work.
After the early-morning meeting, George has to report all the important details to his boss, who
then discusses various tasks with George. As soon as this is done, George has to convey all
the important information to everyone concerned.
As soon as he reaches his own plant, he is being bombarded by various questions, problems,
stories, etc. During his lunch-break, he rushes to the auditorium where he listens to the Minister
of Finance, discussing the effect of the current economical situation on the pulp, paper and
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tissue industry. As this is one of his pet subjects, he asks a lot of questions and has a good
conversation with the engineer on his way back.
Back at the plant, he walks in on a verbal disagreement between two of the workers. Being a
people-oriented person, he immediately tries to stop the fight and talks to each party, discussing
the problem and helping them to sort it out.
After work, he rushes home where he dresses smartly for his date with his girlfriend. At the
restaurant, they meet with friends and decide to enjoy the evening together. After an evening of
dance, excellent food and a lot of talk, George goes home for a good night's rest.
Although this is only a story, most of the communication events are probably representative of
our own days.
But let's see what happens if we transfer George to a pulp and paper manufacturing plant in a
small town in Russia where he has to stay and work for three months to help the Russians with a
specific project. Only very few of the people can speak or understand English. What would
George's situation look like now?
Would he still be able to greet a neighbour walking his dog? Would he be able to participate in a
conversation on the previous night's ice hockey game? Would he be the one asking questions
and conveying information during the early-morning meetings? Would he be able to date a
Russian girl and have a nice evening with friends at a restaurant?
Yes, maybe all those things would have been possible as communication entails more than
oral communication. However, most of these contacts would not have been as satisfying as
being able to use language to communicate with another person.
2
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
You might as well ask why it is important for you to learn all this stuff on communication. One of
the main reasons is that living and working with others are communication-intensive
activities. The better we understand what other people are feeling and wanting, and the more
clearly others understand our goals and feelings, the easier it will be to make sure that everyone
is pulling in the same direction.
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Some other reasons are1:

We gain respect from others when we take up a more considerate and respectful
attitude toward our conversation partners and we influence them to do the same to us.

We have more influence over people when we practise honest and considerate
communication.

We are able to handle conflict better when we come to understand more of what goes
on in conversations.
Learning to listen to others more deeply can increase our
confidence that we will be able to help generate problem solutions that meet more of
everyone's needs.

Adopting a more peaceful and creative attitude in our interaction with others can be a
significant way of lowering our own stress levels. Even in unpleasant situations, we
can feel good about our own skilful responses.

Exercises in listening can help us listen more carefully and reassure our conversation
partners that we really do understand what they are going through. Exercises in selfexpression can help us ask for what we want more clearly and calmly.

Communication is also of the utmost importance to businesses.
Without
communication, businesses would not survive.

Businesses are concerned with a wide range of communication activities. First of all,
internal communication needs to be as effective as possible. This involves various
communication activities to ensure good upwards (to your boss), downwards (to your
subordinates) and lateral (to your colleagues / peers) communication.

Companies also have to communicate externally with other companies, suppliers,
customers, etc. since good relationships with them is essential for the business's
survival and growth.
1 Adapted from an article by Dennis Rivers at www.coopcom.org
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
Communication enables people to co-ordinate their activities which makes organised
behaviour in a business possible.
Understanding that communication is important, we have to start looking at what communication
is.
3
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Communication can be defined as a two–way process whereby information (a message) is
sent from one person (sender) to another person (receiver).
The roles of the sender and
receiver change constantly due to the fact that the sender also becomes the receiver of the
message and the receiver becomes the sender.
The communication process has 7 main elements, namely
1
Sender
2
Receiver
3
Message
4
Channel
5
Feedback
6
Barriers
7
Result
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The SENDER initiates the message after he has decided what the purpose (instruct, persuade,
inform) of it should be. The MESSAGE is then decoded in a form that the RECEIVER will
understand and sent in a specific format via a CHANNEL (verbal, non-verbal, written, etc). The
RECEIVER decodes the MESSAGE so that he / she can understand it. The RESULT suggests
that communication has either taken place or not taken place. Due to various BARRIERS (noise,
too many people to pass on the message, different perceptions, different cultures, etc), the
send-message is seldom exactly the same as the received-message.
To ensure that the
RESULT of the MESSAGE is as clear as possible, FEEDBACK should be given / received
Barriers to effective communication can be caused by factors such as:

the number of stages a message has to go through

the amount of time allowed for a message to move through an organisation

the lack of understanding

the shortening of message because people do not care about details
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
the filtering of the message through each stage (the receiver decides what the next
person would need to know)

deliberate distortion (people only send what they want others to receive)

overloading of information (too much information at one time)

underloading of information (too little information)
Communication can either
be one-way or two-way communication.
In two-way
communication the focus is on feedback and interaction during communication, where the
negotiation of meaning is truly important.
One-way communication is mostly characterised by the lack of feedback, difficulty in
obtaining feedback or delayed feedback.
In large organisations, getting feedback could be a problem to which special attention should be
paid.
Improving verbal communications requires first that we understand that communication is very
seldom perfect or clear. We must learn to listen better and speak more clearly. We must also
learn to check whether our message is delivered correctly and whether we have heard a
message clearly.
4
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION2
There are various types of communication, such as formal and informal, one-way and two-way,
written, verbal and non-verbal, etc. Following are some of the types:
4.1
Verbal / oral communication
Verbal communication involves the use of words in speaking (oral), writing, reading and
listening.
2 Effective Communication in Organizations: Michael Fielding
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
The majority of our time is spent communicating verbally, which can be both direct and
indirect.

Direct verbal communication refers to face-to-face communication with one or more
people, such as during meetings, group discussions or speaking one-on-one.
It
includes giving instructions or listening to instructions, dealing with visitors, explaining a
problem to your supervisor, etc.

Indirect verbal communication refers to communication that is not face-to-face, such
as writing and reading.

Listening can be both direct and indirect.
4.2
Organisational communication
In
organisations,
the
focus
of
the
communications is mainly on the flow of the
communication as well as the effects thereof
on
managerial
styles,
leadership
motivation in the organisation.
and
It covers
many types of spoken and written messages.
4.3
Mass communication
In mass communication the focus is mostly on large audiences. In an organisation it entails
advertising in newspapers, on the radio or television where the focus is on large audiences,
repeated reproduction of the message and fast distribution of messages. Feedback is the most
delayed in this type of communication and the audience is the most difficult to define.
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4.4
Small-group communication
This entails communication where two or three people are together and can rotate between
informal (chatting) and formal. Every member of the group is encouraged to communicate to his
/ her full potential and the atmosphere is usually positive.
4.5
Interpersonal communication
This is communication between two people and consists of a range of written and spoken
messages. A great deal of all communications - also within an organisation - is interpersonal.
4.6
Public communication
This level of communication describes public speaking where one person gives a talk, lecture
or oral report to a group who usually does not participate.
4.7
Inter-cultural communication
Communication between people from different cultures is becoming more important as more
and more people from different cultures work and live together. As culture strongly influences
communication styles, people from different cultures find it
quite difficult to communicate. Therefore, businesses can no
longer
disregard
the
importance
of
inter-cultural
communication.
4.8
Intrapersonal communication
This is the most basic level of communication as it concerns the communication we have with
ourselves. It refers to our level of thoughts, unspoken words and self-talk. We create
images, sounds and feelings consciously or unconsciously that either empowers or limits us to
act in a certain way.
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4.9
Non-verbal communication

Processes of communication without the use of language proper, e.g., body
movements, gesture, smells but also such features of speech as intonation, speed,
pause, etc
4.10 Written communication
Written communication can either be direct or indirect.

Direct written communication refers to business letters, memos, faxes, notices,
agendas and reports which are addressed to a specific individual

Indirect written communication refers to newspaper reports, press releases and
advertisements which are directed at the general public
Exercise 1 – Communication process
1
Describe the process of communication.
Communication can be defined as a two–way process whereby information
(a message) is sent from one person (sender) to another person (receiver).
The SENDER initiates the message after (s)he has decided what the purpose (instruct,
persuade, inform) of it should be. The MESSAGE is then decoded in a form that the
RECEIVER will understand and sent in a specific format via a CHANNEL (verbal, nonverbal, written, etc). The RECEIVER decodes the MESSAGE so that he / she can
understand it. The RESULT suggests that communication has either taken place or not
taken place.
Due to various BARRIERS (noise, too many people to pass on the
message, different perceptions, different cultures, etc), the send-message is seldom
exactly the same as the received-message.
To ensure that the RESULT of the
MESSAGE is as clear as possible, FEEDBACK should be given / received
2
Choose an interpersonal experience that you feel was unsuccessful.
Using the
communication model, describe the barriers to effective communication that you
experienced
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Learner's own answer
3
Choose an interpersonal experience that you feel was successful.
Using the
communication model, analyse what you think the reasons for the success of the
communication were.
Learner's own answer
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CHAPTER 2: VERBAL COMMUNICATION
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

understand what verbal communication is

understand how verbal communication is used in terms of tone, pitch, rhythm,
articulation, projection and tempo
1
INTRODUCTION
Communication consists of verbal and non-verbal messages that are exchanged among
people. Research has shown that people often do not have good communication skills and that
their perceptions differ, therefore these messages can easily be misunderstood. This is due to
the fact that our interpretation of a message depends on our experiences, ideas, beliefs and
level of understanding. We understand words only when we interpret what they mean to us.
The words we use affect the way we think and feel and this in turn affects the words we choose.
There is often a big difference between what we thought we said and what the listener thought
he / she heard. This is the result of the filters information goes through when we give and
receive messages.
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2
WHAT IS VERBAL COMMUNICATION?
Verbal communication involves the use of words in speaking (oral), writing, reading and
listening.
The majority of our time is spent communicating verbally, which can be both direct and indirect.

Direct verbal communication refers to face-to-face communication with one or more
people, such as during meetings, group discussions or speaking one-on-one.
It
includes giving instructions or listening to instructions, dealing with visitors, explaining a
problem to your supervisor, etc.

Indirect verbal communication refers to communication that is not face-to-face
because there is no eye contact, yet the conversation takes place directly with another
person such as writing, reading, telephonic and public address. Listening can be both
direct and indirect.
When communicating orally with someone, both the sender (the one who speaks) and the
receiver (the one who listens) have certain responsibilities:
Sender
Receiver
Is my message clear?
Do I understand the message correctly?
Do I have the receiver’s attention?
Am I giving my full attention to the sender?
What is my body language saying?
Are the verbal and non-verbal messages the
same?
Do I know who the receiver is?
Am I listening with empathy?
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Exercise 2 – Self evaluation
Before reading any further, complete the following self evaluation
questionnaire. Also ask a close friend / family member you can trust, to rate
you honestly on the following areas3:
You
Friend
Criteria
Yes
No
Yes
No
1. Is my voice too high?
2. Is my voice too low?
3. Do I speak too quickly?
4. Do I speak too slowly?
5. Do I speak too loudly?
6. Do I speak too softly?
7. Is my voice monotonous?
8 Do I sound weak and unassertive?
9. Does my voice project the image I want to project?
Underline the appropriate choice in each case:
10. Do I speak with clenched teeth / mumble / croak?
11. Do I pause too frequently / infrequently?
12. Does my voice have any undesirable characteristics
(sound harsh / breathless / throaty / croaky)?
3 Taken from “Effective Communication – Getting the message across in business, p 300
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Now that you have completed the self-evaluation, you most probably know where your oral
weaknesses are. Try to address these in the next few weeks, until you turned at least one or
two of your weaknesses around.
2.1
2.1.1
Oral Communication involves ...
Voice
Voice refers to volume, tone and speed of speech
2.1.2
Content
The content of verbal communication is the actual spoken words
2.1.3
Pitch
The pitch of a voice can be high, medium or low.
High Pitch: If the pitch is too high, the voice sounds shrill, tense and thin and without any
authority. You need to lower your voice so your speech will be even and well-paced. This will
also give you time to think and you will come across as being more relaxed and self–confident.
Low Pitch: If the pitch is too low, your voice sounds harsh, husky or lacking in volume. You
need to raise the pitch of your voice without straining it, so it will sound pleasing and melodious.
2.1.4
Volume
Your breathing determines the loudness and volume of the voice. The listener should be able
to hear you with ease and you therefore need to adjust the loudness of your voice to the size of
the area you are in as well as to the occasion.
You also need to vary the volume of your voice to make it interesting to listen to. Whenever
you shift or change the tone, speed or volume of your voice, people will pay attention to what
you are saying.
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The human voice can be compared to the sound of a violin, which is one of the most versatile
and melodious musical instruments to listen to.
However, the very same instrument is
unbearable to the human ear when played by a novice.
The human voice, like the violin, requires practice to draw the listener and create a positive
impact.
2.1.5
Tempo and Rhythm
Ensure that you speak at the correct tempo and rhythm. Concentrate and think about what
you are saying. Speak slower when you want to emphasise important matters, whereas a
lively tempo and a natural rhythm convey an energetic impression.
2.1.6
Tone
The speaker’s tone conveys a specific attitude to the subject, listeners or situation. You need
to control the tone of your voice to ensure it is appropriate for the occasion, i.e. friendly, helpful,
authoritative, sympathetic, apologetic, informal, stern or stiff
2.1.7
Articulation
Articulate words and sounds clearly using the tongue, teeth, lips, jaw and soft palate. If you
articulate words clearly and accurately, people will not have to ask you to repeat what you have
said.
Common articulation examples in South Africa are:

Extra sounds: “fillem” instead of “film” or “situhation” in stead of “situation”

Omission of sounds: “secretry” in stead of “secretary” and “libry” in stead of “library”

Placing the accent on the wrong syllable: “minister” in stead of “minister” and
“comparable” in stead of “comparable”
2.1.8
Projection
The voice must be projected in such a way that it carries over a wide area, sounds
authoritative and commands attention.
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Do's:

Stand up straight with an “open” head and throat

Look straight at the audience

Articulate carefully

Use a pitch that carries

Speak slowly

Imagine that you are “throwing” the words to the back of the room
Don’ts:



Speak too fast or too slow
Don’t mumble
Don’t be monotonous
Don’t change your accent, unless it is difficult to understand


Don’t use filler sounds or phrases, i.e. "like, you know, at the end of the day,
um, er, okay, actually, interestingly enough, as I was saying"… etc

Do not hold notes in the front of your face

Do not look down or away
2.1.9
Pronunciation
Our country has eleven official languages that can sometimes complicate the understanding of
verbal communication. Speakers should try to pronounce words as correctly as possible and
improve strong local accents or careless pronunciation.
It is for these reasons that our communication needs to be accurate and with no room for error
by using the tips we have provided above.
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Exercise 3 – Verbal communication
1
What is verbal communication?
Verbal communication involves the use of words in speaking, writing,
reading and listening.
2
Name a few things that you need to remember when you are speaking to a group of
people
Tone of voice
Pitch
Volume
Tempo and Rhythm
Articulation
Projection
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CHAPTER 3: NON–VERBAL COMMUNICATION
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

understand what non-verbal communication is

understand how eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, movements, appearance etc
play a role in communicating with people

understand how different cultures and the way they do things plays a role in the way we
communicate with others
1
WHAT IS NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION?
Have you ever heard anyone say, "His actions spoke so loudly I couldn't hear what he said?"
What we do is a means of communication, subject to interpretation by others.
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend
about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to
others. However, most of us fail to realise that a great deal of our communication is of a nonverbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Non-verbal communication refers to
communication without words. This includes tones of voice, facial expressions, eye contact,
gestures, expressive movement, spatial arrangements, and patterns of touch, cultural
differences, and other "non-verbal" acts of communication. It may also include the way we
wear our clothes or the silence we keep.
In person-to-person communications our messages are sent on two levels simultaneously,
namely the verbal and non-verbal levels. If the non-verbal cues and the spoken message do not
match, the flow of communication is hindered.
Right or wrong, the receiver of the
communication tends to base the intentions of the sender on the non-verbal cues he receives.
Successful communication thus depends largely on one's ability to understand his / her own and
the other person's non-verbal communication.
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Non-verbal communication can strengthen, contradict, complement or substitute a verbal
message. A frown, for example, can reinforce the fact that one is confused. However, if you
blush while saying that you are not embarrassed; the non-verbal message contradicts the verbal
message.
Non-verbal communication says a lot about how one really feels, and it never lies!
1.1
1.1.1
Non-verbal communication consists of .....
Eye Contact
Have you heard any of the following sayings?

"Eyes are the windows to the soul"

"If looks could kill…"

"The ear is less trustworthy than the eye"
All true!
A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to
talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.
Eye contact is therefore not only important for the communicator, but also for the listener or
audience as it signals whether communication channels are open or closed.
1.1.2
Facial Expression
Facial expressions usually communicate emotions. These expressions show the attitudes of the
communicator. Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state
better than others. For example, the eyes tend to reveal happiness or sadness, and even
surprise. The lower face also can reveal happiness or surprise; the smile, for example, can
communicate friendliness and cooperation. The lower face, brows, and forehead can also
reveal anger.
It is believed that verbal cues provide 7% of the meaning of the message; vocal cues, 38%; and
facial expressions, 55%! This means that, as the receiver of a message, you can rely heavily
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on the facial expressions of the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the
meaning behind the message than his words.
If the eyes are the window of the soul, the face must be the front entrance of the house
Facial expressions are powerful when it is used to accentuate a point.
Don’t:
Don’t over-dramatise facial expression


Don’t act it, rather perfect it
Don’t be unnatural


Don’t be afraid to let your face communicate
Ask yourself what others see and understand if they look at your face
1.1.3
Hands / Gestures
One of the most frequently observed, but least understood,
cues is a hand movement.
Most people use hand
movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a
clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are
individually learned and personal.

Clenched fists signal an aroused emotional state, as in anger, excitement (e.g., to cheer
on a team), or fear. In a business meeting, unconscious fisting is a visible sign of
anxiety.

Tapping of fingers on the table top usually shows impatience

Pointing an index finger to your conversation partner could mean that you are angry or
that you want to stress whatever you are saying as being very important

Open hands or palms turned upwards shows non-aggressiveness and openness.
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People who have to communicate, such as presenters, speakers, trainers, teachers, preachers,
politicians, etc often assume that the audience knows and understands all words and
terminology used! Take for example the word cell:

This could be a jail room

The basic building block of a human body

Cells in an orange segment

A cell phone

A church meeting
All too often the listener / audience is blamed for “getting the wrong picture, but maybe the
communicator painted it incorrectly?
Imagine this:
The words you say is the paint…
Your hands are the two paintbrushes…
Now ask yourself the following questions:

Where do I put my hands when I speak?

Do my hand movements mean something?

Do they explain exactly what my words are saying?
The question is: "What are you painting with your hands?"
1.1.4
Movement
This is an important factor to consider when giving a formal presentation or when communicating
to more than one person
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Do keep in mind:

Are you moving too much while you are talking?

Should you rather stand / sit still?

If you have to move, how, when and where?
Movement is the stroke that skilfully allows the paintbrush to
transform the painted picture into reality
1.1.5
Posture
A clean upright posture portrays the following characteristics:
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A bad posture portrays the following:
Don’ts:
Don’t lean on the counter / desk / podium
Don’t sway backwards and forwards
Don’t stand with your arms folded
Don’t stand
with
hands on
in
your
your
your hips or
pockets
Verbal and non-verbal communication must say the same!
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1.1.6
Personal Appearance
The way a person dresses and is groomed conveys a
certain attitude towards colleagues, clients and the
organisation. Cleanliness, grooming and hairstyle all
need attention if you want to be taken seriously.
1.1.7
Time
Are you on time for meetings or are you always late? Punctuality
plays a very important role in the business environment as it shows lack of
discipline and lack of respect if you are always late.
Following are some interpretations of a few body language signs. However, it is important not to
look at these interpretations as being the only interpretation of a person's behaviour.
For
example, where crossed legs may be a sign of feeling threatened, it could also mean that
someone is quite relaxed.
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Non verbal behaviour4
Indicator
Annoyance
Eyebrow muscle draws the eyebrows down and toward the centre of the
face
Boredom
A bored person looks anywhere but at the person who is talking to
them. They find other things to do, from doodling to talking with
others to staring around the room. They may also keep looking at
their watch or a wall clock. Bored people often repeat actions such as
tapping toes, swinging feet or drumming fingers. They may yawn
and their whole body may sag as they slouch down in their seat, lean
against a wall or just sag where they are standing. Their face may
also show a distinct lack of interest and appear blank
Closure – not open to
Closure literally closes the body up. Arms may be folded or tightly
contact.
clasped or holding one another. Legs, likewise can be crossed at the,
Closure is used when
we feel threatened or
the knee, ankle on opposite knee and the tense wrap-around. The
head may be turned away from the person or tucked down.
want to hide
something
Confidence
Brisk, erect walk. Sitting with hands clasped behind head, legs crossed
4 Adapted from www.bodylanguagetraining.com, www.deltabravo.net/custody/body.htm
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Non verbal behaviour4
Indicator
Deception
When someone is
lying, (s)he is
concerned about
being found out -- and
this concern may
show
A deceptive person is anxious that (s)he might be found out and sends
signals of tension - sweating, sudden movements, minor twitches of
muscles (especially around the mouth and eyes), changes in voice
tone and speed.
There may be signs of over-control - forced smiles (mouth smiles but
eyes do not), jerky movements and clumsiness
A person who is trying to deceive needs to think more about what they
are doing, so they may drift off or pause as they think about what to
say or hesitate during speech.
Shifty eyes / too much blinking could also be a sign that someone is
lying or trying to hide something
Defensiveness
Arms crossed on chest
Dejection
Walking with hands in pockets, shoulders hunched
Doubt, disbelief
Rubbing the eyes
Evaluation, thinking
Hand to cheek, hands which are clasped together, either looking like
they are praying, with both hands pressed together, or with linked
fingers and with index fingers only pointing upwards. Another common
evaluative movement is stroking, often of the chin but possibly other
parts of the face
Impatience
Tapping or drumming fingers
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Indicator
Non verbal behaviour
Insecurity,
nervousness
Biting nails
Interest
Tilted head
Openness
Arms are not crossed and may be animated and moving. Palms are
also relaxed. Legs are not crossed and can be parallel or stretched
apart. The feet may point forward or to the side or at something or
someone of interest. The head may be directed solely towards the
other person or may be looking around. Eye contact is likely to be
relaxed and prolonged
Readiness,
aggression
Standing with hands on hips
2
CULTURE-SPECIFIC BODY LANGUAGE
Non-verbal
communication
is
also
culture-specific.
This
can cause
quite
a few
misunderstandings as what might be acceptable to one culture may be offensive in another.
Here are some cultural specific differences:
2.1
Hand Gestures
Different cultures perceive some gestures in a different light than others. In the African culture,
offence is taken when you call someone with your index finger. It is viewed as an insult because
it is perceived that you are calling your dog!
The opposite is true for white South Africans. They believe it to be acceptable to call a person
with the index finger.
Asians, such as the Chinese, take offence to you rubbing their children on the head when you
ask how old they are. It is perceived as hindering the growth of the child.
Africans would hold their hands in the upright position with the fingers together when referring to
how old a child is, whereas a white person would hold their hand flat in the horizontal position
when referring to a child’s age.
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2.2
Eye Contact
Different cultures have different values when it comes to eye contact.
Some African cultures see eye contact, or not making eye contact, as a
sign of respect. They have been brought up not to look people they
respect, such as parents, elders, managers etc in the eye, because it is
a sign of respect.
Maintaining eye contact is extremely important when doing business with the United Emirates
and other western countries such as the USA, Europe and England. They perceive lack of eye
contact as not to be trusted or cunning.
2.3
Standing up or Sitting Down
Some African cultures have been brought up to be lower than their
elders and people they respect, such as managers, customers,
their parents etc. It is for this reason that they sit down when they
walk into an office where they need to speak to the manager. White South
Africans have been brought up to wait until they have been invited to be
seated.
2.4
Facial Expression
Asians, and specifically Japanese, never show facial expressions. The
reason is that they have been brought up never to “lose face”. It is very
difficult to read if these customers are happy or unhappy, because they
don’t show emotion or facial expressions. The only way to know if they are
satisfied with the service is if they actually come back. If they stay away, you know they were
dissatisfied
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Exercise 4 – Non-verbal communication
1
What is non-verbal communication?
Non-verbal communication refers to communication without words.
2
Give examples of non-verbal communication:
Facial expression
Eye Contact
Gestures
Movement
Posture
Grooming
Time
3
Why is non-verbal communication so important?
It never lies! It communicates what you are not saying in words with your gestures,
facial expression, movement etc
4
What is the ratio of body language to verbal communication?
7% words
38% tone of voice
55% body language
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5
How do I communicate non- verbally?
Complete the checklist below and discuss it with a friend, colleague, or someone who knows you
well.
Ask them to give you feedback on where you should improve your non-verbal
communication
or
Non- Verbal Checklist
What improvements can
be made?
Do I dress comfortably?
Do I dress appropriately for the occasion?
Do I stand up straight?
Do I always sit back in my chair?
Do I stand with my arms folded?
Do I stand with my hands on my hips?
Do I stand at an appropriate distance from the person I
am speaking to?
Do I distance myself from the person I am speaking to?
Do I keep my head up when talking or listening?
Is the expression on my face often aggressive? (Set jaw,
clenched teeth, scowl, jutting chin)
Do I look nervous? (Worried frown, apologetic smile,
biting of lip)
Do I smile inappropriately? When angry, complaining,
criticising)
Do I wag my finger when I talk?
Do I wave my hands about when talking?
Do I fiddle with things?
Do I touch people when talking to them?
Do I tap my feet?
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or
Non- Verbal Checklist
What improvements can
be made?
Do I look at people when talking to them?
Do I stare at people when talking to them?
Do I speak loudly?
Do I speak softly?
Is my voice whining?
Do I hesitate (um) a lot?
Do I clear my throat a lot?
Do I cover my mouth when speaking?
6
Give some examples of cultural differences in communication that you have noticed in
your working environment
Learner's own answer
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7
Connect the correct descriptions to the given pictures. There could be more than one
correct answer
Frustrated
Mad
Worried
Self confident
Angry
Friendly, open
Thinking; deciding
Shocked, surprised
Dejected
Shy
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CHAPTER 4: SPEAKING AND LISTENING
STRATEGIES
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

understand the importance of listening skills

understand why people do not listen

understand what good listeners are

understand the importance of questioning techniques

understand the purpose of paraphrasing in communication

understand the importance of note taking in communication
1
LISTENING SKILLS
1.1
The importance of listening
Listening skills form an integral part of face-to-face communication.
However, the art of listening is not a natural skill. It must be learnt
and requires a lot of practice and effort. Have you ever played the
“broken telephone”?
This is a typical example of how wrong
communication can go because incorrect listening skills are applied.
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Exercise 5 – Self evaluation on listening habits
Think about your own listening habits:

Do you.......?

... let the speaker express thoughts fully without interrupting?
... listen and read between the lines?
... try to remember important facts?
... write down the important details of the message?
... feed the main facts back to the speaker before the conversation ends
to ensure correct understanding?
... manage to listen to the speaker even if the message is dull or boring
or if you do not know or like the speaker?
become hostile or excited when a speaker’s views differ from your
own?
... ignore distractions when listening?
... show genuine interest in the conversation?
How good are your listening skills? Write down at least two that you are going to work upon
during the next few weeks.
I hereby commit myself to work on at least the following two bad listening skills that I have until I
get positive results on the changes I make:
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.................................................
............................................
Signature
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1.2
Barriers to effective listening
The following factors can cause poor listening5:

Cultural differences

Specific speakers' and listeners' role in the organisation

The perceived credibility of the speaker or listener

Stereotyping

Manipulative behaviour

Effects of non-verbal communication

Selective perception

The place where listening occurs

The emotions of the speaker and listener

The type of technical language used
The following poor listening habits can also destroy interaction:

Jumping to conclusions before the speaker has finished

Pretending to be listening but having a wandering mind

Trying to listen to all the facts instead of listening to what is important

Listening to the facts only instead of "listening" to their attitudes and emotions

Refusing to listen because the listening task is too hard / uninteresting or the speaker is
seen as inferior
5 Effective Communication in Organisations: Michael Fielding
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
Mentally criticizing the speaker's delivery and / or appearance

Being easily distracted
Why do people not listen?

They are probably not interested in the discussion

They may be prejudiced by their own thinking and not open to other ideas

They may have a negative attitude towards the speaker and / or his ideas

Sometimes people are just inconsiderate, being wrapped up in their own thoughts

People get bored with certain topics and their minds stray to other more interesting
thoughts

People are sometimes lazy and listening takes effort
The receiver is responsible for listening actively during the communication process for the
communication to be successful. The listener should provide constant feedback to the speaker
to show that the communication is effective.
This can include facial expressions, body
movements, eye contact and various sounds including “Oh!” “Hmmm”
It can also be done verbally by making listening noises like “I see”, “Yes, yes”; “Go on” and
providing answers to questions and asking questions.
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1.3
What is a good listener?
Good listeners are people who:
The advantages of effective listening include the following:

Achieving better interpersonal relationships

Saving time, money and energy

Avoiding mistakes and misunderstandings

Identifying problems and grievances before it is too late

Creating a working climate of openness and sensitivity

Improving motivational and persuasive abilities
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1.4
Techniques for effective listening6
Listening is an art and there are very few fixed rules. The following tips should help you become
an active listener.

Decide why you are listening – to get the main idea, follow directions, hear difficult
material, etc

Motivate yourself to listen attentively and responsively to the speaker, not just to what
he / she is saying, but also to how he / she is saying it.

When people are upset about something and want to talk about it, their capacity to listen
is not very good. Trying to get your point across to a person who is trying to express a
strong feeling will usually cause that person to try even harder to get the emotion
recognised. On the other hand, once people feel that their messages and feelings have
been heard, they start to relax and they have more attention available for listening.

Acknowledging another person's thoughts and feelings is not necessarily agreeing with
them. It
...still leaves you the option of agreeing or disagreeing with that person's point of view,
actions or way of experiencing.
...still leaves you with the option of saying yes or no to a request.
...still leaves you with the option of saying more about the matter being discussed.

Many people don't separate acknowledging from agreeing. The effect of this is that one
person tries harder to be heard while the other tries harder not to hear – a definite recipe
for disaster.

People want both. They want to be understood and acknowledged on the one hand, and
also approved and agreed with, on the other. With practice, one can learn to respond
first with a simple acknowledgment.
As you do this, you may find that, figuratively
6 Adapted from www.coopcom.org
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speaking, you can give your conversation partners half of what they want, even if you
can't give them all of what they want.
That will be a giant step forward. Your
conversation partners will also be more likely to acknowledge your position and
experience, even if they don't sympathize with you. This mutual acknowledgment can
create an emotional atmosphere in which it is easier to work toward agreement or more
gracefully accommodate disagreements.

Keep eye contact with the speaker

Be open to the other person's ideas, etc

Give feedback. As a general rule, do not just repeat another person's exact words.
Summarise their experience in your own words. But in cases where people actually
scream or shout something, sometimes you may want to repeat a few of their exact
words in a quiet tone of voice to let them know that you have heard it just as they said
it. If the emotion is unclear, make a tentative guess, as in "So it sounds like maybe you
were a little unhappy about all that..." The speaker will usually correct your guess if it
needs correcting.

If you can identify with what the other person is experiencing, express a little of that in
your tone of voice. Emotionally flat summaries feel strange and distant.

Know and understand body language
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Exercise 6 – Listening skills
1
L
2
What makes a good listener?
Look interested
I
Inquire with questions
S
Stay on track with the flow of the conversation
T
Test your understanding
E
Evaluate the message
N
Neutralise your own feelings
E
Empathise with the person
R
Respond appropriately
Find a practice partner. Take turns telling events from your lives. As you listen to your
practice partner, sum up your practice partner's overall experience and feelings in brief
responses during the telling. Ask for feedback – is (s)he happy that you captured all the
important facts and feelings?
2
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
Good listeners will always ask questions to ensure they understand what the
speaker is trying to say by listening for the main purpose or goal of the
message. If you are unable to understand the clear meaning of what the
sender is trying to say, you need to ask questions to clear any
misunderstandings.
?
Question-asking is one of the main ways that we try to get a grip on
whatever is going on, but we are usually not very conscious of the quality of
questions we ask. Many of the questions we have learned to ask are totally fruitless and selfdefeating (such as parents asking a pregnant teen, "Why???!!! Why have you done this to
us???!!!"). In general, it will be more fruitful to ask "how" questions about the future rather than
"why" questions about the past, but there are many more creative possibilities.
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As noted above, not all questions are of equal value. Many are a waste of effort but a few can be
amazingly helpful. Asking conscious, creative and exploratory questions of others, of oneself,
and about one's situation or task at hand, is a tool that everyone can use with great success.
According to Donald Schön7 in The Reflective Practitioner, we use questions to make a kind of
'space' in our minds for things we do not know yet (in the sense of understand), or have not
decided yet, or have not invented yet, or have not discovered yet. The answer will involve a
complex mix of discovering, inventing, understanding, and deciding, all pulled together partly by
the creative power of the question. Asking questions can allow us to start thinking about the
unknown, because questions focus our attention, and provide a theme for continued exploration.
Questions are like the mountain climber's hook-on-the-end-of-a-rope: we throw the hook into the
unknown, and we pull ourselves into the future. But we need to learn how and where to throw,
so that we pull ourselves into a better future.
There are two basic types of questions one can ask:
Open-ended questions are much more inviting of a wide range of responses. Even if our goal
is to persuade, we can't do a good job of that unless we address our listener's concerns, and we
won't understand those concerns unless we ask questions that invite discussion.
When one is under time pressure, it is tempting to ask closed questions, pushing people to
make "yes-no" decisions. But pressing forward without addressing people's concerns is not
such a good idea and has played a key role in many on-the-job accidents and catastrophes
(such as the Challenger Space Shuttle explosion).
2.1
Open-ended questions
Open-ended questions allow for a wide range of responses and have no restriction on the
answer. It opens debates, establishes a range of issues that are relevant to the discussion,
generates participation and openness and gives the control or responsibility to the other person
for his / her own answers.
7 Adapted form www.coopcom.org
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“What”, “How?”, “Why?”, “When?”, “Where?” and “Who?” are often used to begin an open-ended
question? Also, “What do you think…” “Tell me more about…” etc.
2.1.1
Advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions
Advantages

They help to show the listener's way of thinking and priorities

They give the listener freedom to construct an answer

It shows how much the listener knows

It helps to build a good relationship because the questions do not imply a judgement

It opens up communication
Disadvantages

It takes time and energy to ask and answer

It makes it more difficult to control the conversation
2.2
Closed questions
Closed questions are restrictive and the listener is required to give only a “yes” or “no” answer.
There is no additional information forthcoming to clarify the message to the listener.
2.2.1
Advantages and disadvantages of closed questions
Advantages

It saves time

It allows the speaker to control the flow of information

It enables the speaker to obtain exact information

It enables the speaker to obtain a lot of information in a short time
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
It helps a shy listener to start talking
Disadvantages

It limits the replies

It can turn a conversation into an interrogation and the listener can become defensive if
too many closed-questions are used

It restricts the listener's choices of answer and need to explain
2.3
Prompting questions
When you are listening to a speaker or trainer or when you need to explain to someone how
something works, use prompting questions to promote understanding.
Prompting means you keep asking until you get a satisfactory answer or until the receiver
understands the message. You can use the following prompting techniques:

Rephrase: Maybe the person didn't understand the question, or it was unclear. Ask
the question again by using other words.

Simplify: If the question is too difficult, try asking a simpler question.

Give clues: Questions such as: “What does that tell you about….”

Refer to other knowledge: Sometimes a person doesn’t realise he/ she knows the
answer. You can refer to things they already know.

Simplify the structure of the question: Instead of asking a What? question, you can
use a question where the person has to make a choice between two alternatives
“Would you prefer …. or ….?”
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Exercise 7 - Questions
1
What is the purpose of asking questions?
Questions are asked to clarify understanding or to get more information on a subject
2
What type of questions do we get?
Open questions
Closed questions
3
What is wrong with the following questions? Make sure you read them very carefully as
most of them are not as easy as they might look. How would you treat such questions?
3.1
Why do you make newsprint like this and what do you think of the method?
This is actually two questions in one. Refer each back to the questioner. Then answer
each part separately.
3.2
What can we do to make you happier so that you can become more productive?
The question has a false assumption in, namely that happiness and productivity go
hand-in-hand. Point this implication out to the reader and ask him / her to rephrase the
question
3.3
This job calls for a lot of work at night. You don't mind late work, do you?
This is a leading question as it forces you into answering "yes". Ask the questioner to
rephrase the question
3.4
Would you be for or against voting for Moses Tsotetsi as shop steward?
This question is emotionally loaded as you have to make a choice about someone.
State politely that you would rather not answer the question as it has been phrased.
Ask the questioner to rephrase the question
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4
What would you do if .....?
4.1
The question is off the point?
Ask the questioner to rephrase the question without insulting him
4.2
You think that you know what the question is going to be before the questioner has
finished speaking?
Stop yourself from completing the question yourself. Hear the questioner out.
4.3
You do not know the answer to the questions
Don't try to bluff your way through. Admit that you do not know.
4.4
For some reason you prefer not to answer the question.
State honestly that you would rather not answer the question
5
What can you do to ensure that you don't make the same mistakes when asking
questions?
Learner's own answer
6
What is a prompting question?
Prompting means you keep asking until you get a satisfactory answer or until the
receiver understands the message.
7
Describe 5 prompting techniques.
Rephrasing a question means ask the question again by using other words
Simplify a question if the question is too difficult by asking a simpler question
Give clues to help the person understand such as: “What does that tell you about….”
Refer to other knowledge to lead the listener to the answer for a question.
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Simplify the structure of the question: Instead of asking a what? question, you can use
a question where the person has to make a choice between two alternatives (Would
you prefer …. or ….?)
3
PARAPHRASING
If the listener needs to clarify a message with the speaker, the listener could reword or
summarise the question by asking for example: “Do I understand correctly that you need
information on the amount of paper distributed to the Gauteng region over the last month?" Or
“Can I confirm that your number is 082 585 7922?”
4
TAKING NOTES
If your manager is giving you a new assignment or teaching you something you know little about,
it would be wise to take notes to assist you in remembering what he said or what is especially
applicable to you.
You need to have a note pad and pen to make your notes.
Remember the following:

Listen attentively to what is being said or read a given text
carefully

Use sub-headings, numbered points, abbreviations, capitals and underlining for main
points, and dashes rather than other punctuation marks.

Omit unnecessary words – use words such as nouns and verbs that carry meaning

Don’t attempt to take down complete sentences

Maintain the style of the original. i.e. formal / informal

Insert the missing links to expand concise notes into a readable, coherent, properly
constructed whole
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Exercise 8 – Note taking
1
How would you go about taking notes during a meeting or lecture?
Listen attentively to what is being said or read a given text carefully
Use sub-headings, numbered points, abbreviations, capitals and underlining for main
points, and dashes rather than other punctuation marks.
Omit unnecessary words – use words such as nouns and verbs that carry meaning
Don’t attempt to take down complete sentences
Maintain the style of the original. i.e. formal / informal
Insert the missing links to expand concise notes into a readable, coherent, properly
constructed whole
2
Ask the trainer for Unit Standards 8963 and 13202 and / or discuss note-taking with an
expert and include more note-taking tips to your list
The following are some examples / guidelines
Use abbreviations instead of writing out words;
Don’t rewrite everything. Refer to diagrams, sketches or summaries in your textbook;
Use symbols to draw attention to important words:
Encircle
underline,
use bold type,
use arrows to connect ideas,
use different font types.
Use colour.
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Use punctuation marks (dashes -, question marks ? and exclamations ! to draw
attention to important aspects of the work.
Add illustrations.
Write on one side of the paper only, if possible. Use the other side to add references,
new ideas or links.
Leave plenty of space throughout your notes – you may want to add important points
from other sources later.
Leave out word such as the, and, it is which is, a, etc.
Start a new line for each new point.
Use headings and sub-headings.
Use bullets or number facts.
3
Practise your note-taking skills by taking notes in meetings, lectures, when your wife /
mother / partner gives you some work to do for him / her, etc. Copies of these notes
have to be included in you portfolio of evidence
Check for at least 5 different copies of notes in the learner's portfolio
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CHAPTER 5: PRESENTATIONS
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

know how to conquer your fear of speaking in public

understand the basics of public speech / presentation
1
INTRODUCTION
You arrive at work on Monday morning – chirpy and full of energy! You feel confident and ready
for the new week.
Suddenly everything changes!
Your plant manager sees you walking
towards the control room and decides there and then that it's your turn to make a presentation at
the morning meeting that morning.
Speaking in front of a group of people is a common source of stress for almost everyone.
Although many of us would like to avoid this problem entirely, it is not always possible to do.
Whether we work alone or with large numbers of people, eventually we will need to speak in
public to get certain tasks accomplished. And if we want to be leaders or achieve anything
meaningful in our lives, we will often need to speak to groups, large and small, to be successful.
However, the truth about public speaking is that it does not have to be stressful!
If you
understand what causes you to stress and you keep some simple principles in mind, you will
soon be one of those people others look at and think "Wow! I wish I could be as smart, calm
and witty as ..."
1.2 A checklist for your presentation
To create an effective presentation / speech takes time and planning. Following are a few
pointers to help you in preparing for that presentation you have to make.
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Start preparing early; don't wait until the last minute to prepare

Start as early as you can with the preparation for your presentation. Make sure that you
have enough time to practise your entire presentation before a group of your colleagues
or friends.
Think about your audience

Who they are and why they are here; what their interests are; what they know; what
they want to know; what would be a worthwhile investment in their time.
Know your purpose

Is your proposal aimed at informing or persuading? Make sure you tell your audience
what you are going to do.
Use an effective introduction

Orient the audience; explain why your presentation is important; set the tone, establish
a relationship between yourself and the audience; establish credibility and avoid weak
introductions such as apologies, jokes and rhetorical questions
Organise your presentation clearly and simply

Prioritise topics and allocate time accordingly

Keep to 3 - 5 main points

Use supporting materials to focus on main points

Use examples, statistics, expert opinions, etc

Use simple words, simple sentences, markers, repetition, images, personal language
("You" and "I")
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Create an effective conclusion

Summarise

Set the final image

Provide closure

Don't trail off

Don't just present data or summarised results and leave the audience to draw its own
conclusions. You have had much more time to work with your information than your
audience. Share your insight and understanding and tell them what you've concluded
from your work
Sound spontaneous and speak enthusiastically

Use key phrases in your notes so you don't have to read, use the overhead projector
instead of notes; vary volume, don't be afraid of silence, don't use fillers like "um"...
Use body language effectively

Relaxed gestures, eye contact; don't play with a pen or pointer, don't block visual aids
Use visual aids to enhance the message

Use visuals to reinforce and clarify, not overwhelm

Keep visual aids uncluttered

Use titles to guide the audience

Don't block the audience's vision; limit the time your back is to the audience

Make sure you know how to operate the equipment; practise it ahead of time; have
backup cords, bulbs, adapters, etc. Prepare for the worst!
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
Make sure you know the lighting requirements for your equipment; know where the
switches are and what settings are needed; bring a small penlight in case the room has
to be darkened and you need to see notes or equipment
Analyse the environment

Check out the size of the room, placement of chairs, time of day, temperature,
distractions, etc
Cope with stage fright

Cope with stage fright by remembering that it's normal; it can be helpful, everyone feels
it. Also read the following tips.
1.3 Tips on overcoming the fear of speaking in public8
 It is important to know that you don't have to be brilliant to be successful. You can
make mistakes, be tongue-tied or even forget parts of your speech. No-one will really
care as long as you give them something of value. If your audience walks away feeling
that they have learned something, they will consider you a success.
 This does not mean that you have to deliver mountains of facts or details to give your
audience what they want.
People remember very few of the facts or information
speakers express, therefore you only need to make two or three main points to have
your talk be successful.
 The third important thing to remember is to determine what the purpose of your
speech / talk is.
Remember, the purpose of public speaking is not for you to get
something (approval, fame, respect, sales, clients, etc.) from your audience, but rather to
give something useful to them.
8 Adapted from: How To Conquer Public Speaking Fear by Morton C. Orman, M.D
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 Do not try to be like somebody else – be yourself. Be natural. No matter what type of
person you are, or what skills and talents you possess, stand up in front of others and
fully be yourself!
 While you will eventually find your own style of public speaking, certain tricks can be
used by almost everyone. Two of these, humility and humour, can go a long way to
making your talks more enjoyable and entertaining for your audience. Be humble in front
of others. Do not be afraid to admit that you have weaknesses and can make mistakes,
or that you do not know all the answers to the questions. By admitting it, you become
more credible and more believable and you create a safe climate where others can
acknowledge their personal shortcomings as well.
 If being humorous feels comfortable, use it. It usually works, even if you don't do it
perfectly.
 One thing that adds to the fear of public speaking is the fear people have that something
awful, terrible, or publicly humiliating will happen to them. Fortunately, it never
happens! But, should something happen - positive or negative – make sure that you
always use it to your own advantage.
 Also remember that you don't have to control the behaviour of your audience to
deliver a successful presentation. Although there are certain things you do need to
control such as your own thoughts, your preparation and arrangements for audio-visual
aids, how the room is laid out, etc., you don't have to control your audience. They will do
whatever they do, despite of what you do. If people are fidgety or restless, don't try to
control this. If someone is talking to a neighbour, or reading the newspaper, or falling
asleep, leave them alone. If people look like they aren't paying attention, refrain from
disciplining them. Unless someone is being intentionally disruptive, there is very little you
need to control.
 Preparation is useful for any public appearance. However, how you prepare and how
much time you need to spend are other matters entirely. Make sure your preparation is
adequate, but do not over-prepare. Over-preparation usually means you either don't
know your subject well or you do, but you don't feel confident about your ability to speak
about it in public. In the former instance, you'll need to do some extra research. In the
latter, you'll need to develop trust in your natural ability to speak successfully.
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 The last principle to remember is that your audience truly wants you to succeed.
Most of them are scared to death of public speaking, just like you. They know the risk of
embarrassment, humiliation, and failure you take every time you present yourself in
public. They will have empathy with you and admire your courage. And they will be on
your side, no matter what happens.
 This also means that most audiences are truly forgiving. While a mistake of any kind
might seem a big deal to you, it's not very meaningful or important to them.
Their
judgements and appraisals will usually be much more lenient than yours. It's useful to
remember this, especially when you think you've performed poorly.
Exercise 9 – Presentation skills
1
Listen to a presentation made by one of your managers or a speech
made by a politician on TV or radio and evaluate the presentation according
to the following checklist:
During the presentation, the presenter:
Yes
Somewhat
No
Set the stage by explaining the objective of the
discussion and the time limit.
Opened with a dynamic, attention-grabbing opener
Used a variety of presentation techniques
Encouraged multiple responses to questions.
Acknowledged and accepted responses.
Showed awareness of audience body language.
Used paraphrases to encourage responses.
Used recaps to close off discussion and summarise.
Avoided expressing own opinion until the conclusion.
Ensured that everyone had a chance to participate.
Kept the discussion on topic.
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Used body language to make audience feel comfortable.
Controlled time effectively.
Recapped the presentation at the end.
The hand-out distributed:
Yes
Somewhat
No
Is clearly written.
Is well organised.
2
What is a monotone presentation and what effect does a monotone presentation have on
an audience?
Monotone is when the speaker speaks with one tone of voice. He does not change the pace,
tone or pitch of his voice. It sounds boring and people do not listen because there is no variety
in the presentation
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CHAPTER 6: MANIPULATIVE / BIASED
LANGUAGE
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

understand what biased language is

understand manipulative language
1
INTRODUCTION
One of the greatest challenges we face in today's multi-ethnic, multi-cultural society is that of
communication: how to communicate across all communities, in all languages, respecting all
socio-cultural sensitivities
2
BIASED LANGUAGE
The ways in which we use language say a great deal about ourselves and our attitudes toward
others. Biased language makes unnecessary distinctions about gender, race, age, economic
class, sexual orientation, religion, politics, or any other personal information that's not necessary
to a text's argument or intent.
Sometimes we take biased language for granted like when we use the masculine pronoun "he"
to refer to both men and women.
Whenever you are talking to someone, either individually or in a more formal setting, keep in
mind that your audience may include people from a variety of different backgrounds. Unless you
wish to intentionally exclude or offend some of your listeners, you should avoid language that
could be interpreted as biased on the basis of sex, age, physical ability, and ethnic or racial
identity. Instead, use language that is inclusive and avoids unintended stereotypes, and refer to
people and groups using labels they prefer.
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2.1
Sexist language
Although some experts have argued that he, his, and him do actually refer to both sexes,
studies have shown that many women do not feel included by the use of these pronouns.
Therefore, avoid the generic use of he, his, and him when referring to pronouns that do not
indicate gender.
 Use plural pronouns: Instead of: A learner must be able to present his ideas clearly to his
assessor. Say: Learners must be able to present their ideas clearly to their assessor.
 Drop the pronoun: Say: A learner must be able to present ideas clearly to assessors.
 Change the point of view, when appropriate: Say: As a learner, you must be able to present
your ideas clearly to your assessor.
 Rewrite the sentence to eliminate the pronoun: From the learner, it demands an ability to
present ideas clearly; from the assessor, a willingness to attend carefully
 When a pronoun is required, use the all-inclusive "he or she" or "her or him." When you use
this construction, use the alphabetical arrangement: A learner must be able to present her /
his ideas clearly to her / his assessor.
2.2
Ageist language
The concept of aging is changing as people are living longer and more active lives. Be aware of
stereotyping (decrepit, senile) and avoid mentioning age unless it is relevant.
Although senior citizens have become a general term for the older population, many find it
offensive. Similarly, the elderly implies weakness / frailty to some. Unfavourable terms, as well
as informal ones such as old folks, seniors, and golden agers should also be avoided. More
importantly, avoid language that stereotypes older people as mentally or physically enfeebled.
Rather try to find a label that describes more specifically the population or person you have in
mind such as people over sixty-five, retirees, etc. Even the term older people, although
vague, implies nothing negative.
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2.3
Language based against people with disabilities
Avoid language that implies pity, like victim or cripple, when referring to persons with illnesses
or disabilities.
The terms disability and disabled are generally preferred over handicap or crippled. When
referring to individuals with specific disabilities, first be sure that mentioning the disability is
necessary. If it is, be as accurate as possible and refer to the person first, the illness or disability
second. If it is not, do not mention it at all.
2.4
Ethnically or racially biased language
Ethnic and racial insults are unacceptable in any discussion. However, it is not as clear-cut what
labels are most acceptable for identifying specific ethnic and racial groups. Following are some
general guidelines:

Race or ethnicity should only be noted if it is relevant to the discussion

The words "white" or "black" should not be used as nouns, but as adjectives: white
people, black people etc.

There are some South Africans who take exception to specific labels such as
"coloured", preferring a more generic term such as "black person". A good rule of
thumb in these situations is to ask how people describe themselves.

The phrase "ethnic group" should be used instead of "tribe" - a term that is associated
with negative racial stereotyping.

Another concern is language that may suggest ethnic or racial stereotypes.
Avoid
unsupported generalisations about racial or ethnic groups, as well as racially based
assumptions about individuals.
2.5
Other biased language

Avoiding patronising or demeaning expressions: These are expressions which can
offend, regardless of intention. References to age, sex, religion, race, and the like
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should only be included if they are relevant. For example do not use the word "girl."
Many women and men find this term offensive.
Call females over the age of 18
"women," not "girls," "chicks," or "ladies." Use parallel terms for women and men. Use
"men and women," "ladies and gentlemen," "girls and boys," "husband and wife," (not
"man and wife").
Also avoid using "feminine" or "woman" as modifiers.
Saying a
person is a "woman lawyer" or a "woman tennis player" implies that she is an exception
to the rule. The same applies to terms like "male nurse" and "career girl." The term
"feminine logic" illustrates the most negatively biased use of the modifier tactic since it
implies lack of logic.

Mention a person's sexual orientation only when it is relevant to the topic at hand
and use objective, non-judgemental terminology. The term homosexual to describe a
man or woman is increasingly replaced by the terms gay for men and lesbian for
women.
Homosexual as a noun is sometimes used only in reference to a male.
Among homosexuals, certain terms (such as queer and dyke) that are usually
considered offensive have been gaining acceptance in recent years. However, it is still
wise to avoid these terms in standard contexts.

Avoiding language that excludes or unnecessarily emphasises differences. Use
the genderless "one," "person," and "individual."
To avoid misunderstanding and
stereotyping, use man, men, or mankind sparingly when the meaning is inclusive of
both women and men. Replacements might include person, people, human being(s),
human race, humankind, humans, men and women, women and men, or society.
Instead of focusing on the maleness or femaleness of a job or roles held by the different
sexes, use neutral replacements such as police officer instead of policeman, worker
instead of workman, supervisor instead of foreman, etc
3
MANIPULATIVE LANGUAGE
Our culture, education and experience lead us to interpret the
world around us in a particular way. Therefore, speakers / writers
are affected by the business, political and religious views of their
audience. They deliver a speech / talk for their target audience,
which could be male, female, conservative, liberal, predominantly
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black, predominantly white, sexist, etc. Depending on whom the target audience is, the speaker
will thus “colour” the conversation / talk to suit the audience of the message.
Manipulative language thus refers to the process of “colouring” a speech / conversation / report
in such a way to give the listener / reader a favourable or unfavourable impression.
Have you noticed how different magazines, such as the “You” will have different types of articles
to that of “Car”, or how articles in “The Star" will differ to that of “The Sun”? These are examples
of different age groups reading different types of news. “The Sun” is far more emotional in its
presentation of articles, whereas other daily newspapers are a lot more factual.
When communicating with people, the same principle applies. Your communication is focused
at the target audience. A motivational speaker will build up to a big hype by working on the
emotions of the audience. He will not necessarily have statistics to prove what he is saying and
base most of his information on emotions and feelings.
The CEO of the company will have a very different way of bringing his message across, because
his target audience will include shareholders, stakeholders, employees and the public at large.
He needs to set a different tone and bring news that he knows will satisfy them. The tone of this
presentation will be that of facts and figures, comparing the past to the present, focusing on
goals that have been achieved, etc. The CEO will want the company to “look” good, and will
therefore present his facts in such a way that even negative situations are painted with rosy tints.
Even advertisements are manipulated to draw the right target audience. There is a play on
words to draw buyers with low costs, low maintenance and high return on investment? If you
read between the lines you will know that they are taking you for a ride, but by using the right
tone, the right words, and the right approach, many viewers / readers will fall for the deal.
When using manipulative language, speakers tend to:

report out of context

use a lot of emotional language

give incorrect statistical information

report selectively or incompletely
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
use words that lack a clear and distinct meaning

use generalisations or overgeneralisations

use words with more than one meaning

use euphemisms

use big words

exaggerate

leave important information out
Exercise 10 – Manipulative language
1
What is the difference between biased and manipulative
language?
Manipulative or selective writing refers to the process of “colouring” a report / speech in a
certain way to give the viewer, listener or reader a favourable or unfavourable impression
whereas biased language makes unnecessary distinctions about gender, race, age,
economic class, sexual orientation, religion, politics, or any other personal information that's
not necessary to a text's argument or intent.
2
Where do you most commonly find manipulative language?
Newspapers / Magazines
Television
Politicians
Advertisements
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3
How are articles manipulated?
Report out of context
Use a lot of emotional language
Give incorrect statistical information
Use biased visual material
Report selectively or incompletely
4
How are speeches / talks manipulated?
Exaggeration
Use a lot of emotional language
Give incorrect statistical information
Manipulative body language
Report selectively or incompletely
Learners' own answers
5
Describe in your own words what the following biased language means:
5.1
Language bias in terms of age: Learner's own answer
5.2
Language bias in terms of gender: Learner's own answer
5.3
Language bias in terms of race: Learner's own answer
5.4
Language that excludes or unnecessarily emphasizes differences:
Learner's own
answer
HIV / AIDS is a topic that has received much coverage over the past couple of years. The
government and religious groups seem to have different stances on the topic.
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6
Below is an article written from a religious perspective.
See if you can identify
manipulative / biased language in the article and compare it to some of the examples
we have supplied you with.
Condoms Don’t Work9 – Napier
DURBAN - The head of the Catholic Bishops' Conference in Southern Africa, Cardinal Wilfred Napier,
criticised the government yesterday for promoting condoms in the fight against HIV/Aids "when it's
clearly not working".
Cardinal Napier said only a drastic change in sexual behaviour would stop the spread of the disease.
"Why can't we follow the example of Uganda that successfully reduced its infection rate from about 29%
to five percent in just 10 years?"
Cardinal Napier said in Uganda everyone from the top down, starting with the President, preached the
same message: "Change your behaviour -change your behaviour."
He said in Uganda condoms were never a consideration because the country's entire campaign was
focused on abstinence, which the SA government said was part of its campaign, while still distributing
condoms.
Cardinal Napier said 10% of people living in SA were Catholics, and the church was involved in homebased care and the administering of anti-retrovirals with the help of government.
"There's no medical evidence to prove condoms prevent the transmission of Aids, and it's only 70% to
75% effective in preventing pregnancy," said Cardinal Napier.
"Government speaks about moral regeneration, but it does not think how the promotion of condoms
affects human behaviour."
He said the church would never promote condoms, as it was against birth control and pre-marital sex.
9 The Citizen 25 January 2005
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But where one marriage partner had Aids and the other not, it would be up to that couple to decide
whether or not to use condoms or to abstain from sex.
Cardinal Napier said he did not have first-hand knowledge to comment on reports that the Catholic
Church in Spain agreed to work with the government to support the use of condoms. That was followed
by a similar statement from the Roman Catholic Church in the UK, but the Spanish church then apparently
changed its stance following a rebuke from the Vatican.
• The Health Department yesterday rejected Napier’s comments that condoms do prevent HIV/Aids. The
correct use of condoms protected people from sexual infections, it said, urging the public to ignore
"misleading comments" and to use condoms. - Sapa
Examples of biased / manipulative language are:
6.1
DURBAN - The head of the Catholic Bishops' Conference in Southern Africa, Cardinal
Wilfred Napier, criticised the government yesterday for promoting condoms in the fight
against HIV/Aids "when it's clearly not working.
On what grounds is he saying it is not working?
6.2
"Why can't we follow the example of Uganda that successfully reduced its infection rate
from about 29% to five percent in just 10 years?"
What evidence does he have to support these statistics?
6.3
"There's no medical evidence to prove condoms prevent the transmission of Aids, and
it's only 70% to 75% effective in preventing pregnancy," said Cardinal Napier.
What is he basing his findings on? Where does he get the statistics?
6.4
Cardinal Napier said in Uganda everyone from the top down, starting with the President,
preached the same message: "Change your behaviour -change your behaviour."
The tone is very accusing towards the government
6.5
"Government speaks about moral regeneration, but it does not think how the promotion
of condoms affects human behaviour."
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Is this not supporting that the government is in fact trying to do something about the
prevention of HIV / AIDS?
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CHAPTER 7: SHAPE OR DECODE UNFAMILIAR
VOCABULARY
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

understand how words and sentences are formed

know various technical terms
1
INTRODUCTION
Language is made up of units of sound and units of meaning. Letters or sounds form words and
words form sentences.
Do you always understand everything you read or hear? When you are listening to a report or
attending a training session where technical detail is shared, you may come across words that
are either familiar or unfamiliar to you.
When something is related to the job, you might
understand what the person is talking about because you are familiar with the working
environment.
However, a novice might not know what the words mean, because the speaker is referring to
“jargon” specific to the paper industry.
Following are some of the techniques that are used to put thoughts across.
When you
understand these, some of the unfamiliar words / terms you come across might be easier to
understand:

Syntax involves the rules of building sentences. Words have to follow a sequence to
make it logical. The structure of a sentence influences its meaning. By looking at the
syntax, you can determine which parts of a sentence belong together or which part of
the sentence is being described.
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
Contextual clues: It happens many times that one does not understand every word
one hears, but the context in which these words appear, helps you to understand the
meaning of the conversation / speech, etc.

The meaning of an unfamiliar word can thus be determined by looking at its position in
a sentence, for example "The main sources of toxic emission in a pulp and paper mill
complex are as follows..." Even if you didn't know that "emission" has to do with
pollution, the fact that it is preceded by the word "toxic" indicates that it has something
to do with pollution.

Simile: A comparison between two things using the words as or like for example as
dead as a doornail, as white as a sheet, come down like a ton of bricks, etc. A simile
always states what the two things or persons being compared, have in common.

Metaphor: A metaphor is also a comparison between two people or things that are
usually unconnected, without using “as” and “like”. One thing, with a quality similar to
another, is said to be the other such as a “glaring mirror”, “food for thought”, “leave no
stone unturned”; “she is a rose”, etc. The point of comparison is usually implied rather
than stated.

Neologism refers to the use of new words which are formed by adding –ise, and
-isation to existing words. Some of these newly coined words are well established and
useful such as publicise, finalise, computerise, hospitalisation, etc.

Colloquial: Is the language one normally uses in informal contexts, at home or with
friends. It is not as informal as slang and not as formal as Standard English.

Slang: An expression commonly used in spoken language which is not acceptable in
formal English such as "catch ye later" instead of "see you later". Slang has no place in
formal writing or speaking as it can be offensive.

Jargon: The word "jargon" describes any language that is hard to understand as it
contains many technical-, long and unfamiliar- and / or unnecessary words and
long, complicated sentences or stock phrases.
It can also be described as "a
private language specific to a profession". "Please find enclosed ...." is an example of
business jargon, whereas "Chemical engineering stiochiometry is the study of material
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balances, energy balances and the chemical laws of combining masses as applied to
industrial processes10" is an example of pulp and paper jargon.

Dialect: A dialect is a variation of standard language that is only spoken in a specific
area. It has its own non-standard vocabulary, pronunciation or idioms.

Acronyms: An acronym is a word formed from the initial letters of other words, such as
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).

Irony: Saying the opposite of what is meant such as "You are a bright one" for
someone who has blundered. The tone of voice often indicates that the speaker has an
ironical intention.

Antonyms: Words of opposite meaning. Weak is the opposite (antonym) of strong.

Synonyms: Words of the same meaning. Lazy and indolent are synonyms.

Prefixes: A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to qualify the meaning. A
prefix thus changes the word's meaning or forms a new word for example prescribe
and post-script can be formed form the word script.
2
TECHNICAL TERMS
Every industry, organisation and even small business has some type of jargon that is common
knowledge only between people who are / have been working in that specific area.
Try to decode the following paragraph and write it over in "plain" English.
Abdominal aortic aneurysm involves a dilation, stretching, or ballooning of the aorta. The exact cause is
unknown, but risk factors include atherosclerosis and hypertension. Abdominal aortic aneurysm may be
caused by infection, congenital weakening of the connective tissue component of the artery wall, or
trauma.11
10 N5 Paper Production
11 Medical Encyclopaedia
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.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
Did you understand at all what the paragraph was trying to tell you? This is typical medical
jargon which a medical doctor would most definitely understand.
Now read the following article and try to decode it:
Most pulp mills use short pulpwood (2.4 metres) as feedstock. The fact that drum debarkers’ efficiency
and throughput is highest when debarking logs below 3m in length has further popularised short-wood
storage practices.
Can you understand this better than the previous article? I sure hope so as this comes from
pulp and paper learning material. But, should you give this to a doctor, he / she would not be
able to understand everything.
In the pulp and paper industry there are various terms that are very specific to the industry. This
includes:

processes such as coagulation, defibrillation, consistency, hydrophobic, etc

names of specific pulp and paper machines / equipment such as debarkers, refiners,
foudrinier, etc

materials such as pigment, caustic, lignin, celluloses, guar, etc

chemicals such as CaCO3, Mg(HCO3)2, MgCl2, etc

methods such as mechanical pulping, chemical pulping, sodium zeolite softening, etc

units of measure such as kPa, MVA, kWh, etc

acronyms such as CSF, LC, HC, MC, LIC, etc

In addition there are also formulas, properties, instruments, etc
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Exercise 11 – Industry specific terms
How many industry specific terms do you know and understand?
Take a notebook with you to work for the next few days and write down all unfamiliar (or familiar)
technical terms that you hear as well as their meaning. If you don't know the meaning, ask
someone who might know, or look it up in a dictionary, on the internet or any other source that
you know of. Make yourself a dictionary of as much industry jargon as you can.
Learner's own answer
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Bibliography
Michael Fielding: Effective Communication in Organizations
The Citizen 25 January 2005
N5 Paper Production
Medical Encyclopaedia
Coating and Paper Properties – N4 p 49 – 51
Morton C. Orman, M.D: How to Conquer Public Speaking Fear
Websites
https://mit.imoat.net: The Mayfield handbook of technical and scientific writing
www.neu.edu/styleguide
wwwfac.worcester.edu: On-line writing lab
www.cwrl.utexas.edu
www.coopcom.org: Article by Dennis Rivers
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