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Reaction Revolution and Romanticism 1815 – 1850 The Conservative Order o The Governments of Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, as well as the Royalists in France, all sought to return to the _________________ status quo. o None of the rulers were naïve enough to believe that all of the revolutionary changes could be reversed, but they meant to contain the forces of __________. The Peace Settlement o The __________________ was formed even before Napoleon’s defeat in order to both defeat the French and to ensure a lasting peace after the war. o After Napoleon's defeat, the Quadruple Alliance restored the old _______ monarchy to France in the person of Louis XVIII. The Congress of Vienna o Representatives of all the European powers, except Turkey, assembled at the Congress at ______ in September of ____ to discuss the post-war situation. The Hundred Days o The Congress was interrupted in February ____ by Napoleon's escape from Elba. The Great Powers o Most conspicuous among the numerous monarchs who attended the Congress was ___________, emperor of Russia. o The Tsar supported such generally unpopular causes as the unification of the ______ states and the establishment of a constitutional government in ______. Great Britain o Great Britain was represented mainly by its foreign minister Robert Stewart, Viscount ___________, and by the general and statesman Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of __________. o France o Although the major powers had agreed that France should not be party to any important decisions, the French diplomat Charles Maurice de __________ succeeded in securing an equal share in the deliberations. Prussia o The principal delegate from Prussia was Prince Karl August von __________. Austria o By far, the foreign minister and diplomat who dominated the Congress of Vienna was Klemens von __________ of Austria. o Metternich pursued the policy of __________, meaning he endeavored to restore legitimate monarchs to the thrones of every major European power in order to preserve traditional institutions and values. o Metternich believed European monarchs shared the common interest of _________. o In order to maintain stability, the Congress of Vienna created policies that would maintain the _______ of _____ among the members of the Quadruple Alliance. The Polish Question o In Poland the policy of Legitimacy was ignored in favor of more practical politics. o The Prussians and Austrians were both granted small parts of Poland and the rest of the Grand Duchy was made the Kingdom of Poland under the hereditary rule of the ________ of Russia. The French Question o The policy of maintaining the balance of power also dictated the post-war treatment of ______. o The fear that France would someday again upset the peace of Europe led to the creation of _____________ around France. The Kingdom of the Netherlands o The territory of the Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands of Belgium were combined under the hereditary rule of King William I of the house of ______. The Kingdom of Sardinia o The territory of the Piedmont and the island of Sardinia were made the Kingdom of Sardinia to be ruled by the House of _____. The Germanic Confederation o The territories along the east bank of the Rhine were given to _______ and the Confederation of the Rhine was reorganized into the ______________________. The Compensation of Austria o Austria was given back most of the territory it had recently lost and was compensated in Germany and Italy (Lombardia and Venice) for the loss of the Austrian Netherlands. o The formerly Venetian part of Dalmatia (now in Croatia) also went to Austria. The Ideology of Conservatism o The Congress of Vienna marked the beginning of decades of political reactions to the _______ ideologies of the French and American revolutions. o During the period following the fall of Napoleon the dominant political philosophy of Europe was ____________. Conservatism o A philosophy that is adverse to rapid change and innovation and strives for balance and _____, while avoiding extremes. o Conservatives advocated belief in _____ over reason, _________ over free inquiry, hierarchy over equality, collective values over individualism, and divine or natural law over secular law. o Conservatism emphasizes the merits of the __________ and endorses the prevailing distribution of power, wealth, and social standing. Edmund Burke o Conservatism was best expressed in Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France, which emphasized the dangers of radical and "________" political change. o Burke viewed society as an _____________, with individuals performing various roles and functions. o In this society a natural _____—by virtue of birth, wealth, and education—is supposed to provide the leadership. o The community is held together by venerable customs and __________; gradual changes can be made, but only when they have gained wide acceptance. o Burke rejected the principles of ________, popular representation, and popular sovereignty. The Concert of Europe o The chief accomplishment of the Congress was in reestablishing a ________________ among the countries of Europe, with the result that the peace of Europe remained practically undisturbed for 40 years. o This enduring peace was maintained through the establishment of the _________________, in which the Quadruple Alliance (later the Quintuple Alliance – with France) was reaffirmed and the Great Powers would meet periodically. o The purpose of the meetings were to ensure _____ and end _________ against the established order through the use of armed intervention. Intervention o __________________ by the allies was successful in ending rebellions against the Bourbons in both Spain and Italy. o _______ disagreed with the use of force to intervene in the internal affairs of a country. Latin America o The Napoleonic Wars led to open rebellion against _______ rule throughout Latin America o By 1820, the Concert of Europe was planning armed intervention to restore the Bourbon monarchy’s control over its former colonies in Latin America. The Monroe Doctrine o British foreign minister George _______ suggested a joint venture with the United States to preserve the interests of both nations by blocking European colonization in the Western Hemisphere. o U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and President James ______ announced that the U.S. would not allow intervention in Latin America. “the wake of a British man-of-war” o In reality the most important factor in preventing the European overthrow of the newly independent nations of Latin America was _______ _____ power. The Greek Revolt o In 1821 Greek ____________ led a revolt against the Ottoman Turks who had ruled the region for over 400 years. o In the first phase (1821-1824) of the war for Greek independence, the Greeks fought virtually alone, aided only by money and volunteers from other European countries, where the Greek cause had aroused a great deal of sympathy. o ________ and _________ took up the cause of Greek liberty. o Lord _____, the Romantic poet, died in Greece while fighting in the revolution. The Great Powers Intervene o Because of the _________ importance of Greece on the continent of Europe, the European powers agreed in 1827 to intervene militarily on behalf of the Greeks. o France, Great Britain, and Russia first demanded an _________, which the Turkish government, commonly known as the Porte, refused. o The European powers then sent ____________ to Greece. o The presence of the naval forces, and the efforts of ______, in particular, forced the Porte to accept a settlement. Treaty of Adrianople o In 1829 the Treaty of Adrianople terminated the _____________ War, which had grown out of both the Greek revolution and Russia's own aspirations in southeastern Europe. The Kingdom of Greece o In 1830, under the ______ ________, the Allies established the Kingdom of Greece with a German Bavarian prince as the new “Greek” king. The Conservative Domination Great Britain o In 1815, Britain was ruled by the aristocratic __________ classes that dominated both houses of Parliament. o Voting was controlled by the ______ gentry and was unequal and restricted. The Whigs and Tories o The British Parliament was divided into two factions: the Whigs and Tories. o Both factions were still controlled by the ______ classes, but the Whigs were receiving support from the new upper ____________ generated by the Industrial Revolution. The Tories o The Tories controlled Parliament and became more ___________ with the excesses of the French Revolution and Napoleon. o In 1815, with falling grain prices, the Tories passed the ________, which placed extremely high tariffs on imported grain. o The working classes reacted to higher bread prices with outrage and ________. The Peterloo Massacre o In 1819, a crowd of 60,000 __________ in Manchester was attacked by army cavalry. o Eleven people were killed in the “massacre” and the government reacted by passing __________ measures against the protesters. Restoration in France o In 1814, the Bourbon king Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) was restored to the throne. The Constitutional Charter o Understanding the need to maintain some of the revolutionary reforms, the Bourbons agreed to the terms of the Concordat with the Pope and accepted Napoleon’s __________. o Louis was opposed by both the Liberals and the conservative _______________. o The Ultras gained the upper hand in 1824 when Louis was succeeded by _________. o Conservative policies of the Ultras led France, once again, to the brink of __________ by 1830. Intervention in Italy o By 1815, following the Congress of Vienna, the Italian peninsula remained divided into nine states subject to the domination of northern European powers. o Attempts at revolt against the Bourbons and Hapsburg were brutally _______. o Secret societies, such as the _________ kept the spirit of nationalism and revolution alive. Intervention in Spain o The Spanish Bourbon king _____________ was restored in 1814. o Refusal to institutes political reforms led to an upper-____________ rebellion in 1820. o The Concert of Europe __________, when a French army invaded Spain in 1823. o Ferdinand later imprisoned and tortured to death the leaders of the rebellion. Repression in Central Europe o Prince Metternich used his _____________ to insure that Nationalism and Liberalism were kept in check in Central Europe. German Nationalism o The Nationalists in the German speaking countries looked to King Frederick William III of _______ for leadership. Prussian Reforms o The Prussian government instituted a number of liberal reforms: abolition of _______, municipal governments, expansion of education and universal military conscription. o Following these initial reforms Prussia became more ___________ and remained an absolutist state with no real interest in German unity. Burschenschaften o The growing forces of liberalism and nationalism in central Europe were best characterized by the Burschenschaften, the radical _________________ of Germany. Honor, Liberty and Fatherland o The Burschenschaften sought to spread German ___________ and culture through a variety of activities that really worried Metternich and the Conservatives. The Karlsbad Decrees o The Karlsbad Decrees of 1819 were passed by the Diet of the German Confederation to disband Burschenschaften, impose __________ on the German press and placed most German universities under close government supervision. The Austrian Empire o The Empire was a multinational state held together by the power of the Hapsburg rulers. o The _______, who made up one quarter of the population, dominated the country. o Metternich’s policies of __________ and reaction held in check the nationalistic feelings of such diverse groups as the Slavs, Magyars and Czechs. Autocratic Russia The Russian Tsar, Alexander I, a believer in the ideals of the _____________, abolished many cruel punishments and in 1802 introduced a more orderly administration of government. He improved the condition of the serfs and promoted education, doubling the number of Russian universities. But he refused to grant a ____________ or free the serfs. With the defeat of Napoleon he became more ___________, reverting to a program of arbitrary censorship and repression against liberal groups such as the National Union. The Decembrist Revolt o Nicholas I came to the throne after suppressing the Decembrist revolt, staged by reform-minded _____________ who favored the accession of his brother Constantine. Nicholas I o His domestic policy was __________ and his foreign policy aggressive. The Policeman of Europe o He introduced military discipline into the civil service, tried to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas by rigid __________ and strict state control of universities. The Ideologies of Change Liberalism, Nationalism and Socialism Liberalism o The idea that people should be as free from restraint as possible – this is expressed in both political and economic liberalism. Economic Liberalism o Also called _________ economics, economic liberalism is based on the idea of _____________. o Government should only involve itself in three things: defense, police and public works. Thomas Malthus o In his work Essay on the Principles of __________, Malthus argued that population, if left unchecked, increases geometrically while the ___________ increases arithmetically. o This would lead to overpopulation and ultimately __________ and population decline. o Nature imposes ______, like disease, war, poverty and famine to keep populations from exploding. Therefore ………. o Misery and _______ are the inevitable consequences of the laws of nature. o Individuals, charities and governments should not _________ to help the poor. David Ricardo o In his Principles of Political Economy, Ricardo explains his “Iron Law of Wages” – Iron Law of Wages o Population growth means more workers; more workers means lower wages; wages fall below subsistence level and starvation leads to lower population. o Lower population leads to higher wages; higher wages leads to more food and higher population and the cycle repeats. o Trying to raise wages and _____________ just makes things _____. Political Liberalism o Liberals believed in the protection of civil liberties and the basic rights and ________ of all people. o These rights should be protected by a _______ constitution. Ministerial Responsibility o Many liberals believed that the state ministers should be responsible to ___________ rather than the King. o Most liberals believed in only _______ suffrage. o Liberalism was very much a philosophy of the industrial, __________________ who sought to share power with the landed aristocracy. o Liberals were not _________. John Stuart Mill o In his work __________, Mill wrote the quintessential treatise on the liberal philosophy of individual rights. o In his work On the Subjection of Women, he espoused the concepts of ____________ for women. Nationalism o A political and cultural movement in which the ____________ is regarded as paramount for the realization of social, economic, and cultural aspirations of a people. o Nationalism is characterized principally by a feeling of _________ among a people, based on common descent, language, and religion. o The growing movement of nationalism in nineteenth-century Europe was fundamentally _______ since it encouraged people to shift their political loyalty away from kings. o The forces of nationalism were opposed by _____________ who feared that the unification of countries of Germany and Italy would upset the balance of power. o They also fought against such national groups, as the __________ would have upset the status quo by breaking up the Austrian Empire. Utopian Socialism o The early theories of socialism were based on the ideas that ___________ was superior to competition and that equality must be introduced into social conditions. o The utopians were against ________________ and the competitive spirit of the industrial revolution The Utopian Socialists o Henri de saint-Simon believed society should be a cooperative community run by the elite ______________ and _____________ making government obsolete. Charles Fourier o Charles Fourier, worked out detailed plans for cooperative communities called "_____________” o Although his plans remained untested he best characterized the utopian socialists of the first half of the nineteenth century. Robert Owen o Was a wealthy Scottish wool manufacturer that turned the factory town of New Lanark, Scotland into a thriving community. o When he tried to establish a cooperative community in the U.S. called New Harmony it failed. Louis Blanc o Frenchman Louis Blanc in his work The Organization of Work denounced competition and urged government involvement in the creation of _____________________. Flora Tristan o The French socialist, Flora Tristan in her work __________________ demanded the absolute equality of the sexes. Revolution and Reform 1830 – 1850 Another French Revolution o King Charles X (Brother of Louis XVIII) fearing the growing power of liberals in France passed a series of laws in 1830 called the _______________. The July Ordinances o The laws imposed rigid press __________, dissolved the legislative assembly and _______ the electorate. The July Revolution o Reactions were swift and violent with __________ and fighting in the streets of _____. o Moderate liberals appealed to _______________the duke of Orleans and Charles was forced to abdicate. The Bourgeois King o Louis-Philippe dressed and acted the part of the upper ____________ king. o He ignored the call for increased _________ and failed to bring about reforms that would alleviate the poverty of the working class. o Louis-Philippe cooperated with François Guizot and the Party of Resistance who felt that France had reached the “____________.” o With the ignoring of the poor and the middle class movement of Adolphe _______ Party of Movement, the stage was set for further revolution in France. Neutral Belgium o Belgian Nationalists resisted the rule of the House of Orange and in 1830 the Great Powers agreed to the establishment of the Kingdom of _______ under _______ of Saxe-Coburg. Italy and Poland o Nationalist rebellions in Italy and Poland in the same year were brutally _______ by the forces of Austria and Russia. Reform in Great Britain. o In 1830 the Whigs gained power in Parliament. o The July Revolution in France became a catalyst for ______ in Great Britain. The Reform Act o Disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and enfranchised 42 new towns giving the new __________ urban areas some voice in government. o The bill retained substantial ________ qualifications and so only benefited the upper middle class of the “monied, manufacturing, and educated elite.” The English Poor Law of 1834 o This new reform law was based on the theory that if the conditions for state welfare were intentionally made miserable and degrading, then the poor would be __________ to find profitable employment. Repealing the Corn Laws - 1846 o Another piece of liberal legislation involved the ______ of the Corn Laws o Manufacturers Richard Cobden and John Bight formed the Anti-Corn Law League to help workers _____ bread prices. o The middle class manufactures favored the end of the Corn Laws on the principles of __________ and laissez-faire. o The middle class was satisfied by these reforms and England _______ the next round of revolution that was about to sweep across Europe. The Revolutions of 1848. o The ____________ order continued to dominate the continent, despite the revolutions in France, Belgium and Greece. o In 1848, a series of _______ revolutions swept through Europe, beginning in France. Another French Revolution o An economic _________ in France beginning in 1846 brought great hardship to the working classes. o _________ of the workers in Paris were unemployed by the end of 1847. o Louis Philippe’s scandal ridden government continued to refuse to make reforms, such as the expansion of suffrage to the ____________. o Political opposition to Louis-Philippe’s government began to grow under the leadership of Adolphe ______. o Since political rallies were illegal, liberals used ________ to call for reforms. o When the government outlawed the Grand Banquet in February of 1848, the __________ went up again in the city of _____. o The rebellion forced Louis-Philippe to ________ by the end of February and he fled the country. The Provisional Government o A provisional government was created including such radical liberals as the Utopian Socialist Louis _____. o The new government called for a national assembly to create a new constitution based on _________________ suffrage. The National Workshops o Blanc helped establish a worker’s ____________ compensation program called National Workshops. o The program quickly became a major economic ______ to the government. General Elections o The elections were a repudiation of the _______ republicans who only gained 100 out of the 800 seats in the Assembly. o The ____ of the National Workshops led the moderates to close them down in June. The June Days o The closing of the workshops led to _____ in the streets, which took on an air of _____ warfare, with the lower class workers attacking the middle class bourgeoisie. o The street fighting was ended after four days of bloodshed – thousands were killed and 11,000 prisoners were deported to Algeria in Africa. The Second Republic o The new constitution was ratified in November of ____ – creating a unicameral legislature of 750 members elected by _________ _______ suffrage. o A _________ was to be elected for four years – also by universal manhood suffrage. President Bonaparte o The winner of the presidential election was Charles Louis Napoleon _________ the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. o Within four years President Bonaparte would become _______ Napoleon III. Revolutions in Central Europe. o News of the revolution in France caused an explosion of _________ throughout Central Europe. German Rebellions o _______ destroyed the textile machinery they thought were stealing their jobs. o ________ looted and burned the manor houses of nobility in Germany. o The revolts led many German rulers to begin _______ reforms. o Prussian King Frederick William IV _________ censorship and agreed to a new constitution and to work towards the ___________ of Germany. The Frankfurt Assembly o The German states each sent representatives elected by universal manhood suffrage to an allGerman Parliament to meet in _________ with purpose of creating a constitution for a united Germany. o The mostly upper ____________ assembly declared itself to be the government of all of Germany then broke down in controversy over the ___________ of the new German state. Big Germany vs. Small Germany o Supporters of a ____________ wanted a “big” Germany, that would include the German provinces of Austria. o The ____________ favored excluding Austria and making the Prussian King the Emperor of Germany. o The problem was solved when Austria withdrew but the Kleindeutsch solution failed as well when Prussian King Frederick William IV _______ to be Emperor and disbanded the assembly. The Hungarian Revolt o News of the French revolt led to a ___________ uprising in Hungary against the Hapsburgs of Austria. o The upper middle class Hungarians, led by Louis _______, sought to gain “commonwealth” status within the Austrian Empire. Metternich’s Downfall o Violent _____ in Vienna, Budapest and Prague led to the dismissal of Metternich, who then fled into exile abroad. o Revolutionaries in ______ seized the capital and called for the election of a national assembly. o The new liberal government agreed to Hungary’s demands a separate assembly, national army and _____________. o The ______ in Bohemia then began to call for their own government. Conservative Backlash o The conservatives played on the fears of the middle class of _____ warfare and used the army to brutally _____ the Czech uprising. o In October 1848, the Minister of War was killed by a mob in Vienna. o The ____ now moved on Vienna and by December the radicals had been _______ and the Emperor Ferdinand I had abdicated in favor of his brother ______________ I – who would rule until 1916. Crushing the Hungarian Revolt. o The Austrian armies, aided by 140,000 Russian troops sent by Tsar Nicholas I, were able to _____ the Hungarian revolt in 1849. o The Austrian revolution failed and the ____________, autocratic government continued to rule. Revolts in Italy. o The leader of Italy’s ____________ (resurgence) movement was Giuseppe _______, the founder of the Nationalist organization _____ _____. o Mazzini was involved with the _________ secret societies but quit and became a leading advocate of nationalism in Europe. o _______ rebellions broke out all over Italy in 1848, beginning in Sicily and soon spreading throughout the peninsula. o Lombardy and Venice broke from _______ and became a republic. o ____ was taken from the Vatican and was declared a republic with Mazzini as its leader. o The King of ________ led an army against the Austrians, but failed in his invasion of Lombardy. The Failures of 1848 o The liberal governments were ___________ and by 1849 Austria had regained its Italian territories o The French sent an army to liberate Rome, which under the leadership of Giuseppi _________, was able to hold out for 30 days against overwhelming odds. o In the end only Piedmont kept its liberal constitution. o Why were the liberal revolts so successful at first but then failed so quickly? Order rules the day… o The unity that brought about the success of the revolts was quickly lost to ideological fighting over the ______ of democratic reform. o Concern over _______________ led many moderate middle class liberal to pull back from the radicals over the issue of universal manhood suffrage. A failure over autonomy o ____________ such as the Hungarians that fought for their own independence refused to agree to the independence of groups such as the Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. o The _________ were able to play one national group against the other.