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Combined Lecture Slides,
Weeks 04 - 07
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Spring 2016
Instructor: John Miyamoto
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Next:
Lecture 04-1
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
2
There is no lecture file for this
date. There was no lecture on
this date because it was an
exam day.
Next:
Lecture 04-2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
4
Sensory Memory,
Short-Term Memory & Working Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
04/19/2016: Lecture 04-2
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To Be Discussed Later
UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Memory Systems
6
Outline
Overview of memory systems:
Sensory Memory
This lecture
Short-Term Memory / Working Memory (STM / WM)
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Later
WM
LTM
Multiple Components
Multiple Components
What function do these memory systems serve?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Are Memory Systems?
7
What Are Memory Systems?
• Memory systems retain perceptions, images, motor patterns,
experiences, ideas, thoughts, and intentions that were present
at one time but are no longer present.
Major Functions of Memory Systems
• Store information over a period of time (seconds; minutes; hours; years)
• Pass information between different memory systems
♦
Encode information (put information into a long-term storage)
♦
Retrieve memories or previous learning based on relevance or
usefulness in current processing.
♦
Especially important: Retrieval of information that is relevant
to a current activity.
• Manipulate information in working memory
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Modal Model of Memory
8
The Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
Control Processes,
Goldstein Figure 5.2
e.g., rehearsal
Sensory
Memory
Input
Short-Term
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Output: Speech & Actions
The Modal Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
• Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs.
• STM – short-term storage of current mental activity
♦
STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components
• LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts
♦
LTM also has multiple components
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Happens When Rachel Looks Up a Phone Number
9
What happens as Rachel
looks up a phone number?
(a) She looks at the page
in the phone book.
Perceptual information
enters sensory memory.
(b) She pays attention to
the relevant phone
number. The number
is stored in short-term
memory (STM).
(c) She dials the phone
number while maintaining the number in
STM (rehearsal).
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Example Continued
10
What happens as Rachel
looks up a phone number?
(d) She memorizes the
phone number (stores
the number in longterm memory or LTM).
This process is called
encoding.
(e) Days later, she
retrieves the number
from LTM.
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to the Modal Memory Model
11
The Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
Control Processes,
Goldstein Figure 5.2
e.g., rehearsal
Sensory
Memory
Input
Long-Term
Memory
Short-Term
Memory
Output: Speech & Actions
The Modal Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
• Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs.
• STM – short-term storage of current mental activity
♦
STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components
• LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts
♦
LTM also has multiple components
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Distinction Between STM and LTM
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Distinction Between STM & LTM
• Standard STM example: Remember the following words:
hand, chair, reed, bottle
• We will wait, perhaps, 15 seconds.
Then I’ll ask you to tell me the words that you read
in the order that they were written.
• Another STM example: You know where you are right now
and what you are doing there. You are actively processing
this information (along with other thoughts).
• LTM refers to a variety of memory processes that allow
retrieval of memories that are not currently preserved in STM.
UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Illustration of LTM vs STM Distinction from Goldstein Textbook
13
Figure 6.1: Example of the STM/LTM Distinction
LTM
UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
STM
List of Functions That Are Included in LTM
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LTM Includes .....
• Important information about the self and events in the world, but also,
...
• Trivial information about what has
happened in the recent past,
♦
e.g., what was the picture at the beginning
of the lecture), and also, ....
• “Semantic” knowledge, e.g., what
is an apple, a pencil; which is bigger, a mouse or a moose; etc.
• How to do things: Tie your shoes, drive a car, dial a phone number,
cook a meal, ....
• Learned associations that are not explicit, e.g., the atmosphere of a
dentist’s office makes you feel apprehensive.
UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram of Modal Memory Model – Next Topic = Sensory Memory
15
The Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
Control Processes,
e.g., rehearsal
Sensory
Memory
Input
Next
Long-Term
Memory
Short-Term
Memory
Output: Speech & Actions
SUMMARY OF MAJOR MEMORY SYSTEMS
• Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs.
• STM – short-term storage of current mental activity
♦
STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components
• LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts
♦
LTM also has multiple components
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Definition of Sensory Memory
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Sensory Memory
• Example:
Sparkler trail or flash image
in a dark room.
• Sensory memory is the retention
of the effects of sensory stimulation.
Very brief – less then 1 second.
• Sensory memory is partly due to processes that are close to level of
the receptors, but it has a major component that is central.
♦
"Central" means at the level of the cortex, i.e., at the level of the visual
cortex for visual stimuli; at the level of the auditory cortex for auditory stimuli,
etc.
• What are the capacity limits for visual sensory memory?
How much information is stored? How long can it be stored?
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram: Where Is the Capacity Limit in the Memory System?
17
Evidence for a Capacity Limit
on Sensory or Short-Term Memory
• Suppose a letter array is flashed on
the screen to the right.
• Can you name all of the letters in
a specific row, e.g., in Row 3?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
E
W
M
Y
R
I
X
S
U
N
T
O
P
Q
V
K
Continue with Slide with Example of Pre-Cueing
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Evidence for a Capacity Limit
on Sensory or Short-Term Memory
• Suppose a letter array is flashed on
the screen to the right.
• Can you name all of the letters in
a specific row, e.g., in Row 3?
• The task is easy if I tell you the
row to remember before I flash
the letter array. (See letter array
to the right.)
Pay attention to Row 2.
Answer: P E C Z
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
E
W
M
Y
R
I
X
S
U
N
T
O
P
Q
V
K
O
P
H
V
A
E
X
F
W
C
M
B
N
Z
U
I
Same Problem is Hard If You Must Remember All 16 Letters
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Evidence for a Capacity Limit
on Sensory or Short-Term Memory
• Suppose a letter array is flashed on
the screen to the right.
• Can you name all 16 letters in the
array?
• The task is hard if I ask you to
remember all 16 letters in the
letter array. (See letter array
to the right.)
What were the 16 letters in the
array?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
E
W
M
Y
R
I
X
S
U
N
T
O
P
Q
V
K
U
Y
I
L
R
Z
C
T
V
Q
D
J
X
M
W
N
Is the Capacity Limit on Sensory Memory or STM?
20
Controversy: Is the capacity limit a limit on sensory memory,
or short-term memory?
Transfer too slow?
Limit here?
Limit here?
Input
Sensory
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Short-Term
Memory
• We have evidence that a capacity limit exists:
You can accurately report a pre-selected 4 letters from a 12 letter
array, but you can't accurately report all 12 letters.
• Is there a limit on the capacity of sensory memory?
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Sperling's Partial Report Paradigm
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Sperling’s Partial Report Procedure (Paradigm)
• Digression on Terminology: An "experimental paradigm" is a type of
experiment. Often there will be many experiments that all use the
same paradigm.
• Purpose of Sperling's partial report paradigm:
To determine what are the limits on the capacity of sensory memory.
• To save lecture time, I will not explain the partial report paradigm in
lecture.
♦
Students will be responsible for knowing its purpose and its conclusions,
but not how it works.
♦
Sperling’s partial report paradigm is important for perceptual psychology.
Not so important for higher cognitive processes.
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram: Conclusion re Capacity of Sensory Memory
22
Conclusion of Partial Report Experiment
• Very large, possibly
unlimited capacity.
• Information decays to
0 within 1 second.
Control Processes
Input
Sensory
Memory
Short-Term
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Output:
Speech/Actions
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Is Meant By Capacity Limits on Memory?
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What Is Meant by Limits on Memory Capacity?
• Limit on memory capacity refers to a limit on the amount of
information that can be held in memory.
♦
Not the amount of information that can be input to memory
(encoding), and not the amount of information that can be retrieved
from memory (retrieval).
Sensory memory
– very large, approximately unlimited
Short-Term memory – ?
Long-Term memory – very large, approximately unlimited
• Next:
Introduction to Short-Term Memory & Working Memory
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Overview of Short-Term Memory & Working Memory
24
Overview of Short-Term Memory (STM)
& Working Memory (WM)
Short-Term Memory (STM)
• Intermediate processing stage between sensory memory
& long-term memory
• Emphasis on quantitative aspects:
♦
♦
Limited in amount of information storage.
Limited duration of storage.
Working Memory (WM) – evolved out of the concept of STM
• Same as above plus some additional ideas
• Multicomponent system – verbal, visual-spatial, episodic components
• Emphasis on manipulation of information & control of information
flow.
UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Three Important Aspects of STM
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Three Important Characteristics of STM
Short-Term Memory = STM
1. STM has limited capacity
2. Active maintenance is needed to retain information in STM.
♦
Without active maintenance information is quickly lost from STM.
3. Information in STM is high accessible.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Capacity Limits on STM - Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two
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What Are the Limits on STM Capacity?
• George Miller, "The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two."
What is this about?
Two Aspects of STM Capacity: Quantity & Duration
• Quantity:
How many separate pieces of information can be held in STM?
• Duration:
How long does information last in STM if we don't actively
process it?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Demo re Measurement of Memory Span
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Demo: Memory Span for Digits
• On each trial, you will see a sequence of numbers (digits)
presented one after the other.
• Your Task: Write down all of the digits in the order in which they were
presented.
• For example, if you see
4  8  7  8
Write down: 4 8 7 8
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Demo with 4 Digits – Fixation Point
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Digit Span Trial with 4 Digits
*
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Display Digits – Automatic Timer, 1 Sec. per Slide
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Digit
7
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
3
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Digit
2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
5
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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What Were the Digits?
• Correct Answer
7325
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Demo with 10 Digits – Fixation Point
34
Digit Span Trial with 10 Digits
*
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Display Digits – Automatic Timer, 1 Second per Slide
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Digit
9
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
6
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
1
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
6
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
8
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
1
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
5
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Digit
7
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2
• Clearly retaining 3 or 4 digits is easy.
Retaining 15 or more digits is impossible.
• Typical limit is around 7  2 is the memory span for digits
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Luck & Vogel (1997): Memory Span for Colors & Positions
46
What Were the Digits?
• Correct Answer
9621681257
• Obviously, 10 digits are much harder to retain
than 4 digits.
20 digits would be impossible to retain
♦
Except possibly if you had special training to do this task.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2
47
Tuesday, April 19, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
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Next:
Lecture 04-3
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
49
Limits on the Quantity & Duration
of Information Held in Short-Term Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
04/20/2016: Lecture 04-3
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• Mention Friday section & essay quiz
• How much information can be retained in STM?
• How long does information last in STM?
Lecture probably
ends here
♦
Brown-Peterson task
♦
Retroactive and proactive interference
♦
Proactive interference and the Brown-Peterson paradigm
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results for Memory Span for Digits
51
Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2
• Digit Span Memory Task:
♦
Digits are presented one at a time.
(Experimenter controls how many digits will be presented.)
♦
After subject sees the digits, subject must respond
with the exact sequence of digits that were presented.
♦
Dependent variable: Percentage of trials with perfect performance
when the number of digits equals 2 or 3 or ... or 10 or 11 or .....
• Result: Retaining 3 or 4 digits is easy.
Retaining 15 or more digits is impossible.
• Typical limit is around 7  2 digits is the memory span for digits
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Luck & Vogel (1997): Memory Span for Colors & Positions
52
Memory Span for Color & Location
• Luck & Vogel (1997) is described in
Goldstein's Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9.
• Subject sees some colored squares
on one slide followed by another
slide with colored squares.
• Subject’s task is to say whether
the two slides are identical or
different.
• Result: Performance drops off
radically after presentation contains
more than 3 squares.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Typical Results for Memory Span with Different Contents
53
Typical Results for Memory Span with Different Contents
• We can repeat this experiment with different types of items.
♦
Auditory (spoken) digits
♦
Nonsense syllables – CVC form like "KOR"
♦
Short words chosen at random
♦
Long words chosen at random
• George Miller's "Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two".
• Conclusion: There is a strong capacity limit on STM,
i.e., there is a limit on the total number of items that can
be retained in STM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to "Magical Number 7 +/- 2: Raise Issue of Chunking
54
Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two
Miller, G. A. (1956) The magical number seven, plus or minus two:
Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Psychological Review, 63, 81–97.
• There is a strong limit on the quantity of information stored in STM.
♦
Roughly the same limit applies to many different contents,
e.g., digits, nonsense syllables, short words, long words,
colors in different positions on a screen, tones of different pitch, etc.
• Limitation on STM capacity only applies if there are no meaningful
relationships between separate items.
• When meaningful relationships exist among the items,
many more items can be held in STM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Some Issues re Measures of Memory Span
55
Some Issues Regarding Measures of STM Capacity Limits
• The preceding examples use low-meaning stimuli.
Would the results differ if we used stimuli with more meaning?
• Example: Waiter or waitress taking a dinner order:
♦
I'll have the mushroom soup, the filet of sole with green beans, and
rice. (14 words)
♦
I'll have a ceasar salad, the flank steak medium rare, carrots and peas,
and mashed potatoes. (16 words)
♦
I'll have .....
• Answer: Yes, the results are different when the stimuli are
meaningful. How should we interpret this? (See next slide).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Chunking & Recoding
56
STM Capacity Limits Apply When Stimuli Are Unrelated
• The capacity limit, 7 ± 2, applies to sequences of stimuli ....
that do not have an internal organization.
♦
Example (no internal organization):
EGG, PEN, FOG, CAR, BELT, FLY, ....
♦
Example (has internal organization):
YESTERDAY I WENT SHOPPING FOR A NEW COAT.
I WANTED A WARM COAT THAT HAS A HOOD, ....
• "Chunk" – a larger unit of information built out of related smaller units.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Example of Chunking – Animals List
57
Example of Chunking
• Your Task: Remember the following 12 words:
husky
cougar
bruins
duck
Utes
trojans
golden
bears
buffalo
beaver
sun
devils
wildcats
cardinal
• Can you remember the words in the list?
• ANSWER = mascots of Pac-12 schools:
husky, cougar, duck, beaver, cardinal, golden bear,
bruin, trojans, wildcats, sun devils, buffalo, Utes
• We "chunk" the individual items under the concept “mascots
of Pac-12 schools.”
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Chunking in Everyday Experience
58
Chunking in Everyday Experience
• Typically everyday experience is meaningful.
Not like trying to remember a series of unrelated digits in the lab!
• In everyday experience, people constantly reorganize the current
information in terms of related general knowledge.
• In a very unfamiliar situation, you may feel overwhelmed with
information overload – you aren’t able to chunk effectively
in the unfamiliar situation.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Recoding - Definition
59
Recoding
• "Recoding" – Changing the representational format (change in code)
• Recoding of information in STM can affect ability to retain
information in STM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Codes in STM & LTM
60
Codes in Short-Term & Long-Term Memory
A "code" is a format in which information is represented
in the cognitive system. (Not the same as the "neural code")
• Phonological codes – words represented as sequences of sounds.
• Visual codes – mental imagery, diagrams, perceptual memories
• Semantic codes – meanings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------• Short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) use
all of these codes plus possibly others that are not listed here.
♦
Particular tasks may be biased towards one kind of coding.
• Next: Evidence for different types of mental codes.
This evidence is just a taste – later lectures will present much more evidence.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Evidence for Phonological Codes
61
Evidence for Phonological Codes
• Phonological codes (representing words in terms of the sound of the
words)
♦
Conrad (1964): People who are asked to remember visually presented
letters, make mistakes that confuse a correct letter with similar sounding
letters.
Example: Suppose you are asked to remember AFTR.
(The letters are presented visually one after the another a screen.)
Common mistake: ASTR or AFPR
• Notice "S" sounds like "F" and "P" sounds like "T".
• The letters were presented visually, so the effect of sound similarity is
due to the way the subject represents the stimulus, and not the
stimulus alone.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Evidence for Visual Codes – Mental Rotation Studies
62
Evidence for Visual Codes:
Shepard's Mental Rotation Experiments
• Response time for "identical"
figures is a linear (straight-line)
function of the angle of rotation
between the figures.
Response Time
• TASK: As quickly as possible,
decide whether the two figures
shown to the right have the
same or different shapes.
Angle of Rotation
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Mental Rotation Experiment - Interpretation
63
Evidence for Visual Codes:
Shepard's Mental Rotation Experiments
• Result is easy to explain if we
assume that subjects are rotating a
mental image.
♦
“Propositional representation” =
Symbolic code like human language
or a computer language.
Response Time
• Results are hard to explain if mental
representation is exclusively
propositional.
Angle of Rotation
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Semantic Codes
64
Semantic Codes
• Confusions between long-term memories are usually based on
similarity of meaning rather than on similarity of sound or appearance.
Example: Suppose you must remember the following words.
DOG, PONY, WOLF, ELEPHANT, PENCIL, WHALE
♦
Recognition memory test:
Did the list contain "PONY"? Did the list contain "EAGLE"?
♦
Later you are more likely to say "Yes" to "HORSE" than to "LOG."
(Intrusion Error: False recognition due to similarity of meaning)
♦
Later you are more likely to say "No" to "PENCIL" than to "WOLF."
(Omission Error: False rejection due to dissimilarity of meaning)
• Semantic codes also play a role in STM but these examples are more
complicated.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary re Codes
65
Summary re Memory Codes
• Recoding: Changing the code in which information is represented,
e.g., changing from a phonological code to a visual code.
• The phonological code is the primary code for STM.
• The semantic code is the primary code for LTM.
♦
Other codes are also used in STM and LTM, e.g., visual code.
• Some tasks are easier to perform by using one type of code
or another.
• Recoding can sometimes help to overcome capacity limits of STM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Overview of STM & WM Models
66
Example of Recoding
• "It is a cold but sunny winter day. You are looking across
Drumheller Fountain. Mt. Rainier is visible in the distance.
Two children are playing with a ball next to the fountain.
They accidentally throw the ball into the water."
• If you formed a mental image of the situation, then this is an example
of recoding (changing from the verbal format to an image format).
• Recoding involves changing the cognitive “code."
• Recoding can increase the amount of information that one can retain in
STM by putting it into a form that is more easily retained,
e.g., changing verbal information into a mental image.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Example of Chunking and/or Recoding – Chess Master Example
67
Famous Example of Chunking and/or Recoding
Chess Masters versus Chess Novices (Beginners)
• Chase and Simon (1973a, 1973b):
Chess masters can remember the locations of a large number of
pieces on a chess board if it is flashed in front of them.
Chase and Simon's studies are discussed in Chapter 12 of Goldstein (2014, 4th edition).
They also illustrate differences in how chess experts and chess novices use their memory
resources.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results for Realistic Boards
68
Chess Masters versus Chess Beginners (Novices)
Master does better because he can
chunk based on strategic
relationships.
Master
Novice
(a) Actual game positions
Master does no better than novice
because he can’t chunk.
Master
Novice
(b) Random placement
• Chess masters are much better than chess novices at remembering
chess positions.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results for Random Boards
69
Chess Masters versus Chess Beginners (Novices)
Master does better because he can
chunk based on strategic
relationships
Master
Novice
(a) Actual game positions
Master does no better than novice
because he can’t chunk.
Master
Novice
(b) Random placement
• Masters and novices are equally bad at remembering
a random chess position (impossible position) on a chess board.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Chunking Summary
70
Summary: Chunking, Recoding, STM Capacity Limits
• As we take in information,
..... we reorganize it into larger chunks, and
..... we recode the information into other mental formats.
♦
Knowledge, learning, and past experience help us use
our limited-capacity short-term memory more effectively.
• Are experiments that study STM capacity limits relevant
to everyday life?
♦
In everyday life, we almost never try to remember sequences of unrelated
information.
♦
Yes – the capacity limits are always present, even if they are hidden
by our chunking and recoding strategies in everyday life.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Causes Forgetting in WM/STM?
71
Are Experiments that Study STM Capacity Limits
Relevant to Everyday Life?
• In everyday life, we almost never try to remember sequences of
unrelated information.
• Yes – the capacity limits are always present, even if they are hidden
by our chunking and recoding strategies in everyday life.
• STM capacity limits strongly influence reasoning strategies
even if they don't directly quantify the amount of semanticallyrelated information that can be held in STM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
72
What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
• Why is information lost from STM?
How long does information last in STM without active processing?
• Two hypotheses
♦
Decay – representations of information simply "fall apart."
♦
Interference – other information "bumps" information out of STM.
• Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long
information is retained in STM without active processing.
• General Conclusion: Without active processing, all information
is lost after 15 – 20 seconds.
• What causes the loss of information?
♦
Interference - one very likely cause.
♦
Decay - hard to prove convincingly that decay occurs; maybe it does.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
The Brown-Peterson Paradigm - Example
73
Next:
Lecture 04-4
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
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Decay in Short-Term Memory (STM)
then: The Working Memory (WM) Model
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
04/21/2016: Lecture 04-4
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• What causes forgetting in STM?
♦
Decay
♦
Interference (proactive interference and retroactive interference)
• Measurement of decay in STM: The Brown/Peterson paradigm
• Working memory (WM) model of Baddeley & Hitch
♦
Phonological loop
♦
Visuospatial sketch pad
♦
Episodic working memory
Lecture probably
ends here
• Evidence for the phonological loop
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
76
What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
• Why is information lost from STM?
How long does information last in STM without active processing?
• Two hypotheses
♦
Decay – representations of information simply "fall apart."
♦
Interference – other information "bumps" information out of STM.
• Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long
information is retained in STM without active processing.
• General Conclusion: Without active processing, all information
is lost after 15 – 20 seconds.
• What causes the loss of information?
♦
Interference - It is certain that this is one cause.
♦
Decay - hard to prove convincingly that decay occurs; maybe it does.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
The Brown-Peterson Paradigm - Example
77
Brown-Peterson Paradigm
• Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long
information is retained in STM without active processing.
♦
The Brown-Peterson task is this past week’s Coglab.
• Example of the Task:
Remember three letters:
P N R
Count backwards by 3’s
from the given number:
108
Stop counting and report
the letters when the
experimenter tells you to do so.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Duration of delay is
different on different
trials, e.g., 5 second, 10
second, 15 seconds, .....
Brown-Peterson Paradigm – Summary of the Task
78
What is the Purpose of the Brown-Peterson Paradigm?
• Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long
information is retained in STM without active processing.
♦
Remember three letters, e.g., “P N R"
♦
Count backwards by 3's from a given number
♦
Report the letters after a delay
Assumption 1: While you are
counting backwards, you
cannot rehearse “P N R”.
Assumption 2: Counting
backwards by 3's does not
interfere with retention of
"P N R".
• Goal: Measure decay characteristics of STM.
• Counting backwards by 3’s is an example of articulatory suppression.
♦
Later when we discuss working memory, we will say that
counting backwards by 3’s suppresses rehearsal in the
phonological loop (PL).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results for Brown-Peterson Task – Averaged Results
79
Results for the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Delay in Seconds
• IMPORTANT FACT: These results are averaged over many trials.
• Superficially, the results support the hypothesis that without active
processing, almost all information is lost after about 15 – 20 seconds.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Keppel & Underwood: Reanalysis for 3rd & 18th Trial
80
Keppel & Underwood’s Reanalysis of Brown-Peterson Results
Delay in Seconds
Delay in Seconds
Delay in Seconds
• Panel (b): Performance on the 1st trial of Brown-Peterson task.
• Panel (c): Performance on the 3rd trial of Brown-Peterson task.
• Performance at 18 second delay gets worse as subject performs more
memory trials!
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Graph – Hypothesis That Proactive Interference Causes Forgetting
81
Keppel & Underwood’s Reanalysis of Brown-Peterson Results
Delay in Seconds
Delay in Seconds
Delay in Seconds
• Why does performance at 18 second delay get worse as subject
performs more memory trials?
• Proactive interference – explained on next slide
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Interference – Definition; Proactive & Retroactive Interference
82
Interference – a Cause of Forgetting
• Interference as a cause of forgetting – something you learn
or already know makes it difficult to remember something else.
• Retroactive Interference (RI):
New learning interferes with recall of previous learning.
♦
Example: What did you see when you walked to school 7 days ago?
Everything you have seen since then interferes with access to that memory.
♦
Example: Julie used to go out with Tom and now she goes out with Ted.
Memory of Julie/Ted interferes with memory of Julie/Tom.
• Proactive Interference (PI):
Old learning interferes with recall of new learning.
♦
Example: If you already play tennis, it is harder to learn to play
badminton than if you already play basketball (not tennis).
♦
Example: It is hard to remember where I parked my car today
because I have many memories of parking my car in various places.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Experimental Design for Wicken’s Exp Showing Release from PI
83
Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Is Due in Part to PI
Simplified Version of Figure 6.6 (p. 157):
Wicken's Study of Influence of Proactive Interference on Brown-Peterson Task
• Wicken’s experiment uses the Brown-Peterson paradigm.
• Experiment has 3 groups, but only two are important.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide – Emphasis Rectangle on Fruit Group
84
Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Is Due in Part to PI
Simplified Version of Figure 6.6 (p. 157):
Wicken's Study of Influence of Proactive Interference on Brown-Peterson Task
• Fruit Group: Every trial requires subject to remember 3 fruit.
• Meat Group: Trials 1 – 3 require remembering meat words.
Trial 4 requires remembering fruit words.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results of Wicken’s Experiment
85
Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Results in Part from PI
Fruit Group
Meat Group
Trial 1: banana, peach, apple
Trial 1: salami, pork, chicken
Trial 2: plum, apricot, lime
Trial 2: bacon, hot doc, beef
Trial 3: melon, lemon, grape
Trial 3: hamburger, turkey, veal
Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple
(same category)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Remember list of fruits
after remembering
other lists of fruits.
Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple
(switch category)
Meat Group
Remember list of fruits
after remembering
lists of meats.
% Recalled After 20 s Delay
% Recalled After 20 s Delay
Fruit Group
Same
Same Graph Without the Colored Boxes
86
Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Results in Part from PI
Fruit Group
Mean Group
Trial 1: banana, peach, apple
Trial 1: salami, pork, chicken
Trial 2: plum, apricot, lime
Trial 2: bacon, hot dog, beef
Trial 3: melon, lemon, grape
Trial 3: hamburger, turkey, veal
Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple
(same category)
Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple
(switch category)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Meat Group
Remember list of fruits
after remembering
lists of meats.
% Recalled After 20 s Delay
% Recalled After 20 s Delay
Fruit Group
Remember list of fruits
after remembering
other lists of fruits.
Same Graph: Define “Release from PI”
87
Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Results in Part from PI
• PI (Proactive Interference: Previous trials with same category (fruit or meat)
interferes with STM retention on current trial.
• Release from PI: Improved STM retention on trial where PI no longer
influences performance.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Meat Group
Remember list of fruits
after remembering
lists of meats.
% Recalled After 20 s Delay
% Recalled After 20 s Delay
Fruit Group
Remember list of fruits
after remembering
other lists of fruits.
Summary: What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
88
Conclusion re Forgetting in the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Delay in Seconds
Delay in Seconds
Delay in Seconds
• Proactive interference is a major cause of forgetting
in the Brown-Peterson paradigm.
• Brown-Peterson paradigm attempts to measure decay of memory in STM,
but the measurement is confounded with PI (proactive interference).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Requirements for the "Perfect" Way to Measure Decay in STM
89
Requirements for the "Perfect" Way to Measure Decay in STM
• Researcher must discover Task X such that:
1)
Performing X does not interfere with retaining some information Z in STM,
e.g., Z could be remembering the words "spoon hawk knot".
2)
Past learning does not interfere with performance of Z,
i.e., no proactive interference.
3)
Performing X prevents rehearsal of the to-be-remembered item,
e.g., prevents rehearsal of "spoon hawk knot."
• In the Brown/Peterson task,
X = counting backwards by 3's
Z = remembering short lists, e.g., short lists of foods,
or short lists of digits, or short lists of names, etc.
• Very hard to discover a good Task X.
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Bottom-Line re Forgetting in STM
90
Bottom Line re Duration of Storage in WM/STM
• To keep information in WM/STM, you need to actively process the
information.
♦
Phonological rehearsal & forming mental images
♦
Associating contents of WM/STM with information in LTM (thinking)
• Without active processing, information in WM/STM is lost
after 15 – 20 seconds.
♦
In everyday life, information may be lost from WM/STM even more quickly,
e.g., after a few seconds, if some new information interferes
with the contents of WM/STM.
• Why is information lost from WM/STM?
♦
Interference – well-established cause of forgetting from WM/STM.
♦
Decay – no one has yet proved definitively that decay does or
does not occur.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Overview of WM versus STM - END
91
Overview of the STM and WM Models
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Working Memory (WM)
• STM is a single component
• WM has multiple components
• Main theoretical issue:
How much information can
be stored in STM and how
long does it last?
• Main theoretical issues:
How is information represented
in WM? How is information
manipulated in WM?
o
The issue of the duration and quantity
of information storage is still important
for WM, ....
but question of how WM manipulates
information is the central focus of
research.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram of the Atkinson/Shiffrin (Modal) Model of Memory
92
Modal Model of Memory (circa 1970)
Control
Processes
Input
Sensory
Memory
Short-Term
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Output:
Speech/Actions
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram for the Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory Model
93
Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Think of the diagram to the
right as an expansion &
revision of the standard
STM model.
1. Phonological Loop (PL)
♦
♦
♦
Storage of sounds
Rehearsal
Manipulation of verbal
information
2. Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP)
♦
Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information.
3. Central Executive (CE)
♦
♦
Directs activity within the PL or VSP.
Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide Without the Emphasis Rectangles
94
Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Think of the diagram to the
right as an expansion &
revision of the standard
STM model.
1. Phonological Loop (PL)
♦
♦
♦
Storage of sounds
Rehearsal
Manipulation of verbal
information
2. Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP)
♦
Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information.
3. Central Executive (CE)
♦
♦
Directs activity within the PL or VSP.
Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL is Part of WM?
95
What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM?
Summary of Evidence for PL (Phonological Loop)
• Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of
similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words.
♦
Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G
(harder)
♦
Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q
(easier)
• Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words
than for lists of long words.
• Articulatory suppression experiments
• Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Demo of the Phonological Similarity Effect
96
Demo of Phonological Similarity Effect:
Memory Span for Words
• On each trial, you will see a sequence of words
presented one after the other.
• Your Task: Write down all of the words in the order in which they
were presented.
• For example, if you see
ORANGE  LOOSE  GRIP  TUESDAY
Write down: ORANGE, LOOSE, GRIP, TUESDAY.
Note that ORANGE, TUESDAY, GRIP, LOOSE is incorrect.
• On each trial, make a mental note of how hard it was to
do the task.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Fixation Point
97
Word Span Trial with 5 Words: How Hard Is This?
*
Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides
manually.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Next: On Click – Display Stimulus Words on a Timer, 1 Slide per second 98
Digit
EASE
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99
Digit
GONE
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100
Digit
SING
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101
Digit
TOP
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
102
Digit
CRISP
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
103
What Were the Words?
• Correct Answer:
EASE, GONE, SING, TOP, CRISP
• Remember how hard was that task.
Next: Repeat task but with different stimulus words.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Fixation Point 104
Word Span with 5 Words: How Hard is This?
*
Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides
manually.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
On Click, Display Stimulis on Timer, 1 Slide per Second 105
Digit
RAKE
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
106
Digit
FATE
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
107
Digit
TASTE
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
108
Digit
BREAK
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
109
Digit
BAIT
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
110
What Were the Words?
• Correct Answer: RAKE, FATE, TASTE, BREAK, BAIT
• Which word list was harder to remember?
List 1: The words are not similar in sound.
List 2: The words are similar in sound.
List 2 is harder to remember.
This is the phonological
similarity effect.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Theoretical Analysis of the Phonological Similarity Effect
111
Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect
Compare:
• Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller
for1:
similar-sounding
words TOP
than forCRISP
dissimilar
List
EASE GONE SING
MINTsounding
DOOR words.
List 2:does
RAKE
BREAK memory?
BAIT RATE FADE
What
thisFATE
show TASTE
about working
• Basic Assumption of PL: One way people maintain information
in STM is by rehearsing the sound of words.
• Similar-sounding words are more confusable in a sound-based
rehearsal. Memory span for similar-sounding words should be
smaller if retention is based on rehearsal in the PL.
• The predicted smaller memory span for lists of similar-sounding words
is confirmed (even if the stimuli are presented visually!).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
Repeat this Slide without Yellow TextBox
112
Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect
• Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller
for similar-sounding words than for dissimilar sounding words.
What does this show about working memory?
• Basic Assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in
STM is by rehearsing the sound of words.
• Similar-sounding words are more confusable in a sound-based
rehearsal. Memory span for similar-sounding words should be
smaller if retention is based on rehearsal in the PL.
• The predicted smaller memory span for lists of similar-sounding words
is confirmed (even if the stimuli are presented visually!).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
Repeat: Evidence for the Existence of a Phonological Loop
113
Evidence for the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM
• Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of
similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words.
♦
Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G
(harder)
♦
Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q
(easier)
• Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words
than for lists of long words.
• Articulatory suppression experiments
• Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
Demo of the Word Length Effect 114
Thursday, April 21, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
115
Next:
Lecture 05-1
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
116
Phonological Loop,
Visuospatial Sketchpad
& Articulatory Suppression
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
04/25/2016: Lecture 05-1
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
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Outline
• Working Memory (WM) Model is a multi-component model of STM.
• Phonological Loop (PL):
♦
Phonological similarity effect
♦
Word length effect
♦
Articulatory suppression reduces phonological similarity effect
and word length effect.
• Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSP)
♦
Mental subtraction of images
♦
Brooks’ experiment with pointing and verbal responses
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
Lecture ends here
Diagram of Working Memory Model 118
Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Think of the diagram to the
right as an expansion &
revision of the standard
STM model.
1. Phonological Loop (PL)
♦
♦
♦
Storage of sounds
Rehearsal
Manipulation of verbal
information
2. Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP)
♦
Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information.
3. Central Executive (CE)
♦
♦
Directs activity within the PL or VSP.
Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide Without the Emphasis Rectangles
119
Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Think of the diagram to the
right as an expansion &
revision of the standard
STM model.
1. Phonological Loop (PL)
♦
♦
♦
Storage of sounds
Rehearsal
Manipulation of verbal
information
2. Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP)
♦
Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information.
3. Central Executive (CE)
♦
♦
Directs activity within the PL or VSP.
Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL is Part of WM?
120
Evidence for the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM
• Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of
similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words.
♦
Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G
(harder)
♦
Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q
(easier)
• Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words
than for lists of long words.
• Articulatory suppression experiments
• Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
Demo of the Word Length Effect 121
Next: Demo of Word Length Effect
• Word length effect: Memory span is smaller for list of long words
than for lists of short words.
♦
"Long" means multisyllabic.
• We already did some trials with short words.
• Next: Memory span trial with long words.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Fixation Point
122
Word Span with 5 Words: How Hard is This?
*
Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides
manually.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
On Click, Display Stimulus on a Timer, 1 Slide per Second 123
Digit
HABITUALLY
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
124
Digit
NEUROTOXIN
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
125
Digit
ANTICIPATION
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
126
Digit
DECIDUOUS
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
127
Digit
SAXOPHONE
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
128
What Were the Words?
• Correct Answer:
HABITUALLY, NEUROTOXIN, ANTICIPATION, DECIDUOUS,
SAXOPHONE
• Which word list was harder to remember?
♦
♦
First list: Short dissimilar sounding words
Third list: Long dissimilar sounding words
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
.
Theoretical Analysis of the Word Length Effect
129
Interpretation of Word Length Effect
• Word length effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of long words
than for lists of short words.
What does this show about working memory?
• Basic assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information
in STM is by rehearsing the sound of words.
• Prediction: Since longer words take longer to rehearse, it takes longer
to complete the list and return to each word in the list. Therefore we
are more likely to forget longer words from a list of length N than to
forget shorter words from a list of length N. Thus, memory span should
be smaller for longer words.
♦
Prediction is confirmed.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Word Length Effect & Digit Span: Chinese, Welsh, & English
130
Word Length Effect & Digit Span
• Digits take longer to pronounce
in English than in Chinese.
Digits take longer to pronounce
in Welsh than in English;
England
Wales
• Digit span is greater for Chinese speakers
than for English speakers.
Digit span is greater for English speakers
than for Welsh speakers.
• Interpretation:
♦
Everybody has the same basic STM capacity.
♦
Chinese speakers can rehearse digits faster than English speakers.
Therefore they can retain more digits on the average in a Digit Span task.
♦
English speakers can rehearse digits faster than Welsh speakers.
Therefore they can retain more digits on the average in a Digit Span task.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Define Articulatory Suppression – Then Use Articulatory Suppression in Exp
131
Evidence for the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM
• Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of
similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words.
♦
Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G
(harder)
♦
Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q
(easier)
• Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words
than for lists of long words.
• Articulatory suppression experiments
• Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
Demo of the Word Length Effect 132
What Is Articulatory Suppression?
• Articulatory Suppression: Have subject speak an irrelevant sound,
e.g., "the, the, the, the, ....", while performing
a memory task.
• Purpose of articulatory suppression: Prevent use of PL while
performing the memory task. The conflicting task ("the, the, the, ...")
prevents use of PL.
• Prediction: Articulatory suppression should reduce or eliminate the
phonological similarity effect and the word length effect because ....
a)
articulatory suppression prevents use of PL while performing the
memory task, and ...
b)
these effects result from phonological representations whose use is
blocked by articulatory suppression.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Impact of Articulatory Suppression on Word Length Effect
133
Word Length Effect & Articulatory Suppression
List 1: (long words)
helicopter, transformation, synergy, counterpoint, ....
List 2: (short words)
ant, top, ear, dog, red, .....
• Condition 1A: Subjects read List 1, then try to remember it.
• Condition 2A: Subjects read List 2, then try to remember it.
• Condition 1B: Subjects read List 1 while saying "the, the, the, the,
...." Then they try to remember it.
• Condition 2B: Subjects read List 2 while saying "the, the, the, the,
...." Then they try to remember it.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results of Experiment
134
Articulatory Suppression Reduces the Word Length Effect
Cond 1A vs 2A
Cond 1B vs 2B
book
dog
........
neurotoxin
mendacious
......
Normal Word Length Effect
Articulatory Suppression
Results for Conditions 1A and 2A were not shown graphically in the Goldstein
textbook.
Results for Conditions 1B and 2B are shown in Figure 5.13.
• Conditions 1A and 2A: Normal word length effect was found.
• Conditions 2A and 2B (with articulatory suppression):
Lists
of short or long words remember about equally.
Difference was not significant.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Interpretation of This Result
135
Interpretation of Effect of Articulatory Suppression
Cond 1A vs 2A
Cond 1B vs 2B
book
dog
........
neurotoxin
mendacious
......
Normal Word Length Effect
Articulatory Suppression
• Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal of word sounds (probably
the subject rehearses the word images). So word length no longer
has as much effect.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Comment re Articulatory Suppression & Phonological Similarity Effect
136
Articulatory Suppression &
the Phonological Similarity Effect
• Articulatory suppression also reduces the phonological similarity effect.
(Results shown in a later lecture and in the textbook.)
• These results support the existence of PL and the importance of verbal
rehearsal in PL.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary re PL
137
Summary re Phonological Loop (PL)
• Basic assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in
a short-term memory store by rehearsing the sound of words.
This assumption predicts that ...
• ... similar sounding words should be more easily confused in PL
(phonological similarity effect)
• ... longer words should be harder to maintain in PL
(word length effect).
• ... preventing people from verbal rehearsal should eliminate
these effects (articulatory suppression).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to Diagram of Baddeley-Hitch WM Model - END
138
Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Next
1. Phonological Loop (PL)
♦
Short-term storage
♦
Rehearsal
♦
Manipulation of verbal
information
Next
2. Visuospatial Sketch Pad
(VSP)
♦
♦
Short-term storage of
visual & spatial information
Manipulation of visual
images and spatial
information.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
3. Central Executive
o
o
Directs activity within the PL
or VSP.
Coordinates activity between
PL or VSP, and between these
components and long-term
memory (LTM).
Brandimonte’s Mental Subtraction Task
139
Brandimonte: Mental Subtraction Task
A'
A
Brandimonte, M. A., Hitch, G. J., &
Bishop, D. V. M. (1992). Influence of
short-term memory codes on visual
image processing: Evidence from image
transformation tasks. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning,
Memory, and Cognition, 18, 157-165.
The mental subtraction task
is not discussed in the
Goldstein textbook.
Sample stimuli, A and A'
♦
First, the subject sees A.
♦
Next A disappears and the subject sees A'.
Mental Subtraction Task: “Mentally subtract" the second stimulus from
the first; then name the object that remains.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide with “Remainder” Image After Subtraction 140
Brandimonte: Mental Subtraction Task
A'
A
X
Remainder
after mental
subtraction
Sample stimuli, A and A'
Subject is not shown
this image.
♦
First, the subject sees A.
♦
Next A disappears and the subject sees A'.
♦
Next A’ disappears and the subject must do the mental subtraction.
Mental Subtraction Task: The subject must mentally "subtract" the
second stimulus A’ from the first stimulus A, and name the object
that remains:
e.g.,
Remainder = Ice Cream Cones.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Instructions for a Sample Trial in the Mental Subtraction Experiment
141
Sample Experiment: Mental Subtraction
• Next you will see an image.
• After this image is removed, you will see a second image.
• Mentally subtract the second image from the first image,
and name the image that remains after the subtraction.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Image 1 of the Mental Subtraction Example
142
Example:
Memorize This Image
Image B
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Image to be Subtracted from this Image
143
Subtract This Image from the Preceding Image
Image B'
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Name the Image that Results from Subtraction
144
Subtract This Image from the Preceding Image
• Name the image that results from mentally subtracting Image B’
from Image B.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Name the Image that Results from Subtraction
145
Name the Image that Results
From Subtracting Image B' from Image B?
Result of Subtracting Image B' from Image B
(This image would not be shown to a subject)
• Possible answer: A fish
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary: Mental Subtraction Experiment
146
Summary: Mental "Subtraction" Task
A
A'
X
B
B'
Y
Subtraction Task: The subject must mentally "subtract" the second
stimulus from the first, and name the object that remains.
♦
♦
Possible answer for A and A' on Left: Ice cream cones.
Possible answer for B and B' on Right: Fish
• Important to note that if the subject names the first image, then it is
harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtracting
the second image.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Combined with Mental Subtraction with Articulatory Suppression
147
Combine Mental Subtraction with Articulatory Suppression
2
1
Condition 1: Subject does the mental subtraction task.
Condition 2: Subject says "la, la, la, la, ...." while doing the mental
subtraction task.
Finding: Subjects perform BETTER in Condition 2 than in Condition 1.
Why?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Interpretation of Mental Subtraction Experiment 148
Interpretation of Mental Subtraction Experiment
• The stimuli were designed so that subjects could name the object
before "subtracting" the second image.
♦
E.g., with stimulus 1, a subject might think "headphones".
• If a subject silently says "headphones" while looking
at the left part of stimulus 1, it is harder to see ice cream cones
in the image that results from mental subtraction.
• Saying "la, la, la, la, ...." suppressed the tendency to name
the initial stimulus, so the subject relies only on the visual image
in VSP. This makes the subtraction task easier.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary re Mental Subtraction - END
149
Summary re Mental Subtraction
Assumption: People can maintain a visual/spatial representation of
information by actively processing it in VSP.
Hypothesis: Suppression of PL can improve processing
on tasks if ...
1) ... people are in the habit of naming the image
(recoding initial image into the PL), but .....
2) .... the task is actually performed more easily in VSP.
Result: Articulatory suppression does improve performance
on the mental subtraction task.
♦
This result is hard to explain if STM is a single storage area without
separate PL & VSP.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
END 150
Next:
Lecture 05-2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
151
Brook's Image Scanning Experiment
& Neuropsychological Evidence
for Spatial Rehearsal
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
04/26/2016: Lecture 05-2
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
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Outline
• Brandimonte's Mental Subtraction Experiment
Mental Subtraction + Articulatory Suppression
Done!
• Brook's Image Scanning Experiment: Interference between VSP & PL
• Neuropsychological evidence for spatial rehearsal in the VSP
• Similarities and differences between PL and VSP
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
Purpose of Brook's Image Scanning Experiment 153
Next: Brook’s Image Scanning Experiment
Brooks, L. R. (1968). Spatial and verbal components of the act of recall. Canadian Journal
of Psychology, 22, 349-368.
• Purpose #1:
To show that there are 2 different short-term stores: VSP and PL
• Purpose #2: To show that ...
♦
Performing two different tasks in VSP interfere with each other.
♦
Performing two different tasks in PL interfere with each other.
♦
Performing one task in VSP and a different task in PL does not
cause as much interference
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Image Scanning Experiment
154
Image Scanning (Brooks)
• Experiment has 4 conditions.
♦
2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences
♦
2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response*
• Dependent variable = time to perform a task
• Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes
Response Mode
Stimulus Types
Diagrams
Sentences
Pointing
28.2
9.8
Vocal
11.3
13.8
* There was actually a third response type, “tapping”, but it will not be discussed here – it turned
out not to be very informative.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Point Out that Goldstein Textbook Omits the Sentence Stimuli
155
Image Scanning (Brooks)
• Experiment has 4 conditions.
♦
2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences
♦
2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response*
• Dependent variable = time to perform a task
• Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes
Response Mode
Stimulus Types
Diagrams
Sentences
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Pointing
28.2
9.8
Vocal
11.3
13.8
Same Slide with Remark that Goldstein Omits Sentence Stimuli 156
Image Scanning (Brooks)
• Experiment has 4 conditions.
♦
2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences
♦
2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response*
• Dependent variable = time to perform a task
• Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes
Response Mode
Stimulus Types
Diagrams
Sentences
Pointing
28.2
9.8
Vocal
11.3
13.8
Goldstein's discussion of this study omits the Sentence stimuli.
Only the diagram stimuli are discussed in the textbook.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Explain Diagram Stimulus x Vocal Response
157
Image Scanning (Brooks)
• Experiment has 4 conditions.
♦
2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences
♦
2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response*
• Dependent variable = time to perform a task
• Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes
Response Mode
Stimulus Types
Diagrams
Sentences
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Pointing
28.2
9.8
Vocal
11.3
13.8
Next
Slide
Explain Diagram Stimulus x Vocal Response
158
Image Scanning (Brooks, cont.)
Condition:
Diagrammatic Stimulus & Vocal Response
• Memorize the figure. Then it is removed.
• Start your scan at the star and (mentally)
move clockwise around the figure.
• Say "OUT" when you reach an outside
corner..
• Say "IN" when you reach an inside corner.
• Correct response:
out, out, out, in, in, out, out, in, out, out, out
• Dependent variable:
Response time (time to complete the task)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Explain Diagram Stimulus with Pointing Response
159
Image Scanning (cont.)
• Next: Diagrammatic stimulus combined with pointing response:
Stimulus
Type
Response Mode
Pointing
28.2
9.8
Diagrams
Sentences
Next
Slide
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Vocal
11.3
13.8
Previous
Slide
160
Image Scanning (Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing
Response
Stimulus
• Memorize the figure. Then it is removed.
Same as before
• Start your scan at the * and (mentally) move
clockwise around the figure. Same as before.
• Point to "Out" when you reach an outside
corner.
• Point to "In" when you reach an inside corner..
• Correct response: (See diagram)
out, out, in, in, out, out, in, out, out, out
• Dependent variable:
Response time (time to complete the task)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Respond by pointing to
letters on this sheet.
Transition to Next Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response
161
Image Scanning (cont.)
• Explain sentence stimulus combined with vocal response:
Stimulus
Type
Diagrams
Sentences
Response Mode
Pointing
28.2
9.8
Vocal
11.3
13.8
Next
Slide
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response
162
Image Scanning (Lee Brooks, cont.)
Sentence Stimulus
Condition:
Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response
A bird in hand is
worth two in the
bush.
• Memorize the sentence. Then it is removed.
• Now work from the beginning to the end of the sentence.
Say "yes" each time you encounter a noun; say "no" when
you encounter a word that is not a noun.
• Correct response:
no, yes, no, yes, no, no, no, no, no, yes
• Dependent variable: Response time (time to complete the task)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Transition to Condition with Sentence Stimulus & Pointing Response
163
Image Scanning (cont.)
Condition:
Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response
Stimulus
Type
Diagrams
Sentences
Response Mode
Pointing
28.2
9.8
Vocal
11.3
13.8
Next
Slide
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Sentence Stimulus x Pointing Response 164
Image Scanning (Lee Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Sentence Stimulus &
Vocal Response
Sentence Stimulus: A bird in
hand is worth two in the bush.
• Memorize the sentence.
Then it is removed.
• Work from the beginning to the end of
the sentence. Point to "yes" each time
you encounter a noun; say "no" when
you encounter a word that is not a
noun..
• Correct response: no, yes, no, yes, no,
no, no, no, no, yes
Respond by pointing to
letters on this sheet.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Image Scanning Results 165
Results: Image Scanning (Lee Brooks)
Stimulus
Type
Diagrams
Sentences
Response Mode
Pointing
Vocal
28.2
11.3
Slower
Faster
9.8
13.8
Faster
Slower
Same Slide: Why is Pointing Slower than Vocal For Diagrams & Opposite for Sentences?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
166
Results: Image Scanning (Lee Brooks)
Stimulus
Type
Response Mode
Diagrams
Sentences
• Why is
Why is
Pointing
Vocal
28.2
11.3
Slower
Faster
9.8
13.8
Faster
Slower
diagram/pointing
sentence/vocal
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
slower than
slower than
diagram/vocal?
sentence/pointing?
Discussion of Results 167
Why is Diagram/Pointing Slower than Diagram/Vocal?
Stimulus
Type
Diagrams
Sentences
Response Mode
Pointing
Vocal
28.2
11.3
Slower
Faster
9.8
13.8
• Diagram/Pointing: The stimulus and response compete for a common
cognitive resource, representation in VSP. Information processing
bottleneck causes slower response.
• Diagram/Vocal: Stimulus & response use separate cognitive
resources. No bottleneck.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Why is sentence/vocal slower than sentence/pointing? 168
Why is Sentence/Vocal Slower than Sentence/Pointing?
Stimulus
Type
Response Mode
Pointing
Vocal
Diagrams
28.2
11.3
Sentences
9.8
13.8
Faster
Slower
• Sentence/Vocal: Again, stimulus and response compete
for a common cognitive resource, representation in PL. Information
processing bottleneck causes slower response.
• Sentence/Pointing: Stimulus & response use separate cognitive
resources. No bottleneck.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
xxx 169
Brooks' experiment supports the existence of
a visuospatial sketch pad (VSP) because ....
• If there were only one STM store (not separate PL & VSP), then the
effect of the pointing response would be the same in the visuospatial
task and the verbal task. Similarly for the effect of the verbal
response.
• WM model assumes multiple memory stores – this lets
WM predict conflicts between similar mental codes.
•
The preceding experiment illustrates a basic principle:
A response in one modality (verbal or spatial) will interfere more
with a memory representation in the same modality than with a
memory representation in a different modality.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Spatial Rehearsal in Visual Working Memory
170
Spatial Rehearsal in Working Memory – What Is It?
• Spatial Rehearsal – maintaining information about a location
in working memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Delayed-Match-To-Sample (Monkey Study)
171
Delayed-Match-To-Sample Paradigm
(a) Cue
(b) Delay
(c) Reward
(a) Monkey sees where food is located.
(b) 10 second delay without visual input.
(c) Monkey reaches for food
(or makes a mistake and
reaches in the wrong place).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Goldstein refers to this
experimental task as the
"delayed response task."
See Figure 5.23, p. 143.
Same Display – Single Cell Recordings Find Neural Correlates of (a), (b) & (c)172
Delayed-Match-To-Sample Paradigm
(a) Cue
(b) Delay
(c) Reward
Single-cell recording in monkey PFC shows a correlation between
neural activity & the three stages of this task.
♦
Some neurons become active during the initial placement of the food.
♦
Some neuron become active only during the delay period
(spatial rehearsal).
♦
Some neurons become active only when the response is made.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Display – Monkeys with PFC Lesions Cannot Do This Task
173
Delayed-Match-To-Sample Paradigm
Right
(a) Cue
•
Wrong
(b) Delay
(c) Reward
Monkeys with frontal lesions cannot do this task.
Human infants cannot do task until about 12 months old.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Multiple Location / Eye Movement Version of Delayed Response Task
174
Monkey Performance on Delayed Eye-Movement Task
• Same idea as the delayed-match-to-sample task (preceding slide),
except that there are multiple locations to remember, and the
response is an eye movement. See Goldstein, Figure 5.24 (p. 144).
+
Target Stimulus
+
Delay Period
+
Eye Movement
Response
• The monkey's task is to see the target, wait until a response is
permitted, and then move his eyes to the target position. He gets
rewarded with a squirt of apple juice.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Single-Cell Recordings When Perceiving the Cue; Maintaining Attention; Responding 175
Funahashi, S., Bruce, C. J., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1993). Dorsolateral prefrontal lesions and oculomotor delayedresponse performance: Evidence for mnemonic "scotomas." Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 1479-1497.
• Neurons in DLPFC show sustained activity during delay period
that is selective of the particular location to be remembered.
• Errors occur when this sustained activity fails to initiate or decays
before end of delay period.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Specific Lesions Cause Location-Specific Inability to Memory Loss
176
error
Lesion
• Lesions introduced into spatial memory areas cause location-specific
inability to retain spatial information during the delay period.
(Mnemonic scotoma).
♦
Perception for these locations is not impaired, i.e., this is not a blind spot.
♦
Memory for other locations is not impaired.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Neural Mind Reading
177
Neural Mind Reading
• Neural Mind Reading - guessing what someone was thinking
from the neural response.
Neural mind reading of perceptual processing:
fMRI used to guess which pattern a subject is viewing (Kamitani & Tong, 2005)
♦
On each trial, the subject views the pattern on left or the pattern on the right:
OR
♦
Psychologists who are not told which stimulus was used on a given trial
attempt to guess the stimulus based on fMRI image that was taken during
that trial.
♦
Psychologists achieve accuracy of 75% - 100% depending on the stimulus
pair. Guessing rate would be 50%.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Neural Mind Reading of Activity in VSP
178
Neural Mind Reading of Activity in VSP
fMRI used to guess which pattern a subject is retaining in VSP (Harrison & Tong,
2009)
♦
On each trial, the subject views a sequence of screens.
2
Target 1
Target 2
Remember
This Target
fMRI
Recording
Test
Clockwise or
Stimulus Counterclockwise?
2
♦
Psychologists who are not told which target was retained in VSP on a given
trial attempt to guess the target based on fMRI image that was taken during
that trial.
♦
Psychologists achieve accuracy of 80% (average).
♦
fMRI successfully detected VSP rehearsal of the target image.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary: Neuropsych Evidence for WM Components
179
Neuropsychological Evidence for WM Components
• There is a short-term memory store (VSP) that is specific for visual
imagery and spatial representations.
♦
Evidence for “spatial rehearsal” in VSP
♦
Single-cell recordings in monkey
• Imaging studies of phonological loop:
♦
No one brain locus shows increased activity during rehearsal.
♦
Multiple brain areas that are associated with language show increased
activity.
• Evidence from cognitive impairments
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Table Comparing PL to VSP - Overview of Layout
180
Summary: Comparison Between PL & VSP
Phonological Loop
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Common
Characteristics
Common
Characteristics
Differences
Differences
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '13
Comparison of PL & VSP - END
181
Summary: Comparison Between PL & VSP
Phonological Loop
Visuospatial Sketchpad
• Limited capacity
• Limited capacity
• Information is retained by an active
process (verbal rehearsal)
• Information is retained by an active
process (manipulation of mental
imagery)
• Information is highly accessible
• Information is highly accessible
• Multiple verbal tasks interfere with
each other.
• Multiple visual tasks interfere with
each other.
Verbal Task + Visual Task produces less interference
than Verbal Task + Verbal Task or Visual Task + Visual Task
• PL processes linguistic information;
• VSP processes visual imagery and
spatial information.
Different areas of the brain show enhanced activity
during verbal and visual/spatial rehearsal.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
END
182
Next:
Lecture 05-3
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
183
The Central Executive
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
04/27/2016: Lecture 05-3
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
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Outline
• Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment - one last comment
• The Central Executive
• Introduction to Long-Term Memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
185
Response Sheet for the Pointing Response
in Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment
Condition:
Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response
Stimulus
Response sheet as displayed in
Goldstein Table 5.2 (p. 139)
Respond by pointing to
letters on this sheet.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide with Comment that the Response Sheet on Right is Correct
186
Response Sheet for the Pointing Response
in Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment
Condition:
Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response
Stimulus
Response sheet as displayed in
Goldstein Table 5.2 (p. 139)
The actual response sheet
looked more like this.
Why use the irregular
display as on the right?
Respond by pointing to
letters on this sheet.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram for the Working Model - Point Out the Central Executive
187
Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
1. Phonological Loop (PL)
♦
Short-term storage
♦
Rehearsal
♦
Manipulation of verbal
information
2. Visuospatial Sketch Pad
(VSP)
♦
♦
Short-term storage of
visual & spatial
information
Manipulation of visual
images and spatial
information.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
3. Central Executive
o
Directs activity within
the PL or VSP.
o
Coordinates activity between PL
and VSP, and between these
components and long-term memory
(LTM).
Arguments for a Central Executive
188
Arguments for a Central Executive
• Conceptual Argument: The brain somehow controls activity in WM.
♦
Let's give this controlling mental function a name: The Central Executive.
♦
Baddeley has called the central executive the "attention controller."
♦
Baddeley has also called the theory of the central executive "a ragbag."
• Evidence from clinical neuropsychology:
♦
A variety of pathologies have been found that relate to the functions of the
central executive.
♦
These pathologies are often related to injury to the frontal lobe of the brain.
Especially, to the prefrontal cortex.
♦
Frontal lobe damage
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Stroop Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome
189
Stroop Task
• Name the color that the word is printed in. Ignore the meaning of the
word.
Compatible Condition
Incompatible Condition
BLUE
GREEN
RED
BLACK
GREEN
RED
etc
BLUE
GREEN
RED
BLACK
GREEN
RED
etc
• Obviously, the incompatible condition is harder (slower).
• What does this have to do with executive processes?
• Frontal lobe damage – much slower in the incompatible condition.
Why? – Stroop task requires self-control.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Wisconsin Card Sort Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome
190
Wisconsin Card Sort Task
•
Match new card to the
“correct” old card.
Old
Cards
•
Subject guesses which
old car matches the new
card.
New
Card
•
Subject gets feedback,
"correct" or "incorrect."
Subject gradually learns
the rule for "correct"
response.
•
Criterion for “correct” old
card keeps changing over
blocks of trials.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Block 1: “Correct” responses based on
matching shape.
Block 2: “Correct” responses based on
matching color.
fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Scene Stimuli 191
Wisconsin Card Sort Task
• Normal performance:
Subjects can learn to switch
the criterion for a new block of
trials.
• Frontal lobe damage – normal
performance on first block of
trials, but they have great
difficulty when the
experimenter changes the rule.
Block 1: “Correct” responses based on
matching shape.
Block 2: “Correct” responses based on
matching color.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Self-Control & Working Memory
192
Self Control & Working Memory (WM)
Hypothesis:
• WM & central executive monitors current plans & goals.
WM monitors adherence to these plans and goals.
• If a task places extra load on WM, then adherence to plans
and goals will suffer.
• Mention study of dietary self-control and WM
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
193
fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Remember
Faces
Just Watch
Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working
memory impairment in normal againg. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1298-1300.
fMRI measurement of brain activity in left parahippocampal/lingual
gyrus (overlaps the parahippocampal place area/PPA). Specialized
for place perception.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Definition of Face-Relevant & Passive Viewing Conditions
194
fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Remember
Faces
Just Watch
Face Relevant Condition: Remember faces; ignore scenes.
Later tested for recognition of a face.
Passive Condition: Simply view the stimuli.
Later tested on whether the arrow points left or right.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Definition of Good Suppressors & Poor Suppressors
195
fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Lower
Lower
Higher
Higher
Remember
Faces
Just Watch
• Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the
scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide - Add Definition of Poor Suppressors
196
fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Higher
Higher
Lower
Lower
Remember
Faces
Just Watch
• Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the
scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed.
• Poor Suppressors – People whose brain activity was greater when
the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Scene Stimuli
197
Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
• Good suppressors are better
at recognizing faces.
• Proposed explanation: Good
suppressors have better
central executive function;
they are better at inhibiting
irrelevant information.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary re Frontal Lobe Syndrome & Central Executive
198
Frontal Lobe Damage & Impaired Functioning
of the Central Executive
• Central executive controls attention to relevant information and
responses.Inhibits irrelevant information and responses.
• Frontal lobe damage leads to difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information
and responses.
• Stroop task, Wisconsin card sort task, face recognition with irrelevant
scenes: To respond correctly, you need to inhibit a response.
People with frontal lobe damage have difficulty inhibiting tempting
wrong responses.
• People differ in how effective they are at inhibiting irrelevant
information.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to Baddeley’s List of Central Executive Functions
199
Baddeley’s List of Functions of the Central Executive
• Only partially understood. Very active area of current research.
♦
Alan Baddeley – chief developer of working memory theory
(Baddeley calls the theory of the central executive a "ragbag")
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------• Controlling and allocating attention.
• Coordinating current activity of working memory with goals.
• Task switching. Multi-tasking.
• Selection and launching of responses.
• Inhibiting associated but inappropriate responses.
• Controlling the interface between STM stores and LTM,
especially LTM search & retrieval.
• Chunking
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Introduction to Long-Term Memory
200
Wednesday, April 27, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
201
Next:
Lecture 05-4
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
202
Introduction to Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
04/28/2016: Lecture 05-4
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline - Introduction to Long-Term Memory
• Reminder: Distinction between STM and LTM
• Different types of long-term memory
♦
Explicit versus implicit memory (declarative vs non-declarative memory)
♦
Episodic versus semantic memory
♦
Procedural memory
♦
Associative memory
• HM – a famous clinical case;
Illustrates many important aspects of memory
• Evidence for distinction between STM & LTM
• Evidence for distinction between episodic and semantic memory
• Evidence for distinction between explicit memory and
implicit memory.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Picture Showing the STM/LTM Distinction
204
Figure 6.1: Example of the STM/LTM Distinction
LTM
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
STM
Diagram of Modal Memory Model – Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation205
Control Processes
External
World
Sensory
Store
Short-Term
Store
Retrieval
Encoding
Long-Term
Store
Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation
• Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information.
• Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back
to STM
• Consolidation - creating a strong LTM by repeatedly retrieving and
manipulating an LTM; and by associating it with other memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
List of Functions That Are Included in LTM
206
LTM Includes .....
• Important information about the self and events in the world,
but also, ...
• Trivial information about what has happened in the recent past,
• “Semantic” knowledge, e.g., what is an apple, a pencil;
which is bigger, a mouse or a moose; etc.
• How to do things: Tie your shoes, drive a car, dial a phone number,
cook a meal, ....
• Learned associations that are not explicit, e.g., the atmosphere
of a dentist’s office makes you feel apprehensive.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram Showing the Major Components of the LTM System
207
Different Types of Long-Term
Memory
Figure 6.12. Different Types of Long-Term Memory
• Declarative memory (explicit memory) – facts, knowledge, images
• Non-declarative memory (implicit memory) – non-conscious memory
that is expressed through change in behavior; it doesn’t necessarily
include conscious recollection.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Intro to HM
208
HM – A Famous Clinical Case
• HM – initials of a man
See links to his biography on the Psych 355 website.
• Intractable epilepsy.
• August 25, 1953: Medial temporal lobes (left and right) were surgically
resectioned to treat his epilepsy. Removal of the hippocampus.
• Following surgery, HM had much milder symptoms of epilepsy, but ...
... he was found to have severe problems with memory.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
.
Where is the Hippocampus? 209
This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers
website (http://vig.prenhall.com) for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN 9780131825086).
Where is the Hippocampus?
• HM underwent bilateral removal of much of the hippocampus,
amygdala and surrounding medial temporal cortices.
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Schematic head facing up.
Hippocampi are in red.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
HM’s Memory Problem
210
HM’s Memory Post-Surgery
• HM could carry on a conversation, understand current situations.
• Severely impaired memory for any events occurring after brain injury.
(Severe anterograde amnesia)
• Some impaired memory for events occurring before injury.
(Some retrograde amnesia)
• Could learn new skills like sewing.
• Could learn some new semantic information, e.g., his brain
surgery was in 1953, but he learned that there was a president named
Kennedy who was assassinated.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram Showing Multiple Memory Systems
211
Episodic & Semantic
Memory
HUMAN MEMORY
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Memory Terminology – Including Types of Amnesia
212
• Explicit memory (declarative memory)
♦
Episodic memory - memory for personal experiences
♦
Semantic memory - memory for facts
• Implicit memory (non-declarative memory)
♦
Priming – exposure to one stimulus can affect ability to perform
a cognitive task.
♦
Procedural memory - memory for how to do things,
e.g., how to type at a computer.
♦
Associative and non-associative learning
Discussed on Earlier Slide
Some Memory Terminology
• Amnesia
♦
Anterograde – amnesia for events occurring after brain injury.
♦
Retrograde - amnesia for events occurring before brain injury.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Back to HM’s Memory Problems
213
HM's Memory Problems
• Anterograde amnesia – very severe; he could not form new
permanent episodic memories.
• Retrograde amnesia – very severe for preceding 4 days; some
impairment up to 11 year preceding.
♦
Retrograde amnesia was temporally graded, i.e., less amnesia as you
go farther into the past.
----------------------------------------------------
• Declarative memory – severely impaired
♦
♦
Episodic memory – very severe
Semantic memory – severe but he could still learn some new general
facts.
• Procedural memory – relatively intact
♦
♦
HM learned to sew.
HM learned to draw mirror images.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram Showing that HM’s Memory Problem Pertains to Encoding
214
HM's Explicit Memory Problem
Control Processes
External
World
Sensory
Store
Short-Term
Store
Retrieval
Encoding
Long-Term
Store
(Remember that this diagram is an over-simplification)
• HM's worst problem was encoding from STM (WM) to LTM. Impaired
transfer from STM to LTM.
• STM (WM) was still functioning because he could understand the
current situation.
• Note: This diagram omits the role of the hippocampus in
consolidation (probably HM had difficulty with consolidation as well as
encoding).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
STM/LTM Distinction and the Serial Position Curve
215
How Do We Know that STM and LTM
Involve Different Brain Mechanisms?
Figure 6.3
Serial Position Curve
• Subject views list of 20
words, one word at a time.
Each word is presented for 2
seconds.
• After viewing the list, subject
attempts to recall as many
words as possible.
% Recalled
Evidence from the
Serial Position Curve:
Serial Position
• Curve shows the percentage of
times a word in each position
was recalled correctly.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Interpretation of Standard Result for Serial Position Curve 216
Interpretation of Standard Result for Serial Position Curve
Claims (to be substantiated in
Figure 6.3
Serial Position Curve
• Primacy effect is due to
transfer to LTM.
• Recency effect due to words
retained in STM.
• Standard result for serial
position curve is evidence for
STM/LTM distinction.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
% Recalled
subsequent slides)
Serial Position
Primacy
Effect
Recency
Effect
How to Prove that Primacy is Due to Transfer to LTM? 217
How to Prove Primacy Effect Is Due to Transfer to LTM?
• Rundus (1971) presented words at the rate of
1 word per 5 seconds. 20 words in the list.
• Subjects were instructed to rehearse words aloud.
What Subject Sees
car
stone
What Subject Says
car, car, car, ...
car, stone, car, stone, car, ...
top
car, stone, top, car, stone, top, ...
......
...................
• This study has 2 dependent variables:
♦
Frequency of recall for words in each position
♦
Number of rehearsals for words in each position
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results for Rundus Experiment 218
Results for Rundus (1971) Study
Figure 6.4
Effect of Overt Rehearsal
Figure 6.4 to the right:
• Blue dotted line:
Number of times a word
in each position was
rehearsed.
% Recalled
(standard result)
Number of Rehearsals
• Red solid line:
Serial position curve
Serial Position
• Blue dotted line correlates perfectly with the serial position curve (red
dotted line) except for the recency effect. This supports claim that
primacy effect is due to transfer to LTM.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
How to Prove that Recency Effect Due to Retention in STM? 219
How to Prove Recency Effect Is Due to Retention in STM?
• Dashed line shows effect of
counting backwards by 3’s for
30 seconds after presentation of
list.
• This result supports the
hypothesis that the recency
effect is due to retention of
recent words in STM.
mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning
and Verbal Behavior, 5, 351-360.
Figure 6.5
Effect of Counting Backwards
% Recalled
• Counting backwards prevents
retention of words in STM, so
recency effect disappears.
Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage
Serial Position
No recency effect
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
How We Know that STM & LTM Are Different Mechanisms - Summary 220
How Do We Know that STM and LTM
Involve Different Brain Mechanisms? (Conclusion)
• Assumption of separate STM & LTM explains facts
about the serial position curve.
• Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between
STM & LTM.
o
o
HM & Clive Wearing
had normal memory
span, e.g., 5-8 digits
KF had reduced
memory span, e.g.,
about 2 digits.
HM, Clive Wearing
K. F.
STM
LTM
OK
Impaired
Impaired
OK
LTM was ok.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Surprise Memory Test Items 221
Next:
Lecture 06-1
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
222
Episodic vs Semantic Memories
Explicit vs Implicit Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/02/2016: Lecture 06-1
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• What is the Evidence for the Distinction Between STM and LTM?
• Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory
Lecture probably
ends here
• What Builds Strong Memories?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
How Do We Know that STM & LTM Are Different Systems?
Serial Position Curve 224
How Do We Know that STM and LTM
Involve Different Brain Mechanisms?
• Assumption of separate STM & LTM explains facts
about the serial position curve.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Show Exp Results for Primacy & Recency 225
STM/LTM Distinction Explains Primacy & Recency
Figure 6.4
Effect of Overt Rehearsal
% Recalled
% Recalled
Number of Rehearsals
Figure 6.5
Effect of Counting Backwards
Serial Position
No recency effect
Serial Position
Figure 6.5:
Figure 6.4:
• Red solid line:
Serial position curve
• Blue dotted line: Number of times a word
in each position was rehearsed.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
•
Dashed line shows effect of counting
backwards by 3’s for 30 seconds after
presentation of list.
•
Counting backwards prevents retention
of words in STM, so recency effect
disappears.
How to Prove that Recency Effect Due to Retention in STM? 226
How Do We Know that STM and LTM
Involve Different Brain Mechanisms? (Conclusion)
• Assumption of separate STM & LTM explains facts about
the serial position curve.
• Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between
STM & LTM.
o
o
HM & Clive Wearing
had normal memory
span, e.g., 5-8 digits
KF had reduced
memory span, e.g.,
about 2 digits.
LTM was ok.
HM, Clive Wearing
K. F.
STM
LTM
OK
Impaired
Impaired
OK
• Bottom Line: Most but not all cognitive psychologists accept that STM
(WM) and LTM are different mechanisms.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Episodic vs Semantic Memory + Surprise Memory Test Items 227
Next: Episodic Memory vs Semantic Memory,
But First, an Example (to be discussed later)
ELK
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
SHIP
PEAR
Diagram of Memory Systems
228
Episodic & Semantic Memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Episodic vs Semantic Memory – Some Examples
229
Episodic versus Semantic Memory – Some Examples
• "I remember parking my car this morning."
E
• "I remember the big earthquake in 1963."
E
• "I remember that wolves are bigger than coyotes."
S
• "I remember that Olympia is south of Seattle."
S
• "I remember Beth's telling me to be at the meeting
on Thursday."
E
• “Barack Obama won the 2012 presidential election."
maybe E,
maybe S
maybe both
E
• A subject in a memory experiment says, "I remember
seeing the word, 'watermelon' on the list you showed me."
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Double Dissociations Between Episodic & Semantic Memory
230
Recall versus Recognition Tests
• Recall Test: Can you remember the words that I displayed a few
minutes ago? Write them down.
• Recognition Test: Which of these words were displayed at the
beginning of this lecture? Write “yes” or “no” depending on whether a
word was or was not displayed at the beginning of the lecture.
BOAT
PEAR
DEER
etc.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide + Question: Do These Tests Involve Episodic or Semantic Memory? 231
Memory Performance on a Memory Test – Episodic or Semantic?
• Recall Test: Can you remember the words that I displayed at the
beginning of the lecture? Write them down.
• Recognition Test: Which of these words were displayed at the
beginning of this lecture? Write “yes” or “no” depending on whether a
word was or was not displayed at the beginning of the lecture.
• Is your memory performance on these tests an example of
episodic memory or semantic memory?
•
Main Point: Recall and recognition tests require episodic memory because
they require the subject to remember a specific previous experience.
•
Note that it requires semantic memory to answer, e.g., what is a ship?
Is a pear a fruit? But these were not the questions that were asked.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Double Dissociations Btwn Episodic & Semantic Memory
232
Double Dissociations Between Episodic & Semantic Memory
KC, HM
Italian woman (KF)
Semantic
Episodic
OK
Impaired
Impaired
OK
This table is similar to, but not quite identical to Table 6.4, p. 163, in Goldstein 4th ed.
• Semantic memory intact; episodic memory impaired.
o
o
Alzheimer's patient with intact semantic memory, and severely impaired
episodic memory.
Patient KC has injury to hippocampus.
Lost his episodic memory, but retains semantic memory.
• Semantic memory impaired; episodic memory intact
o
KF is a 44 year old Italian woman who had encephalitis. Impaired
semantic memory, e.g., could not remember meaning of words on a
shopping list; Intact episodic memory, e.g., could remember what she
had done
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
fMRI Evidence for Episodic/Semantic Distinction
233
How Do We Know that Episodic and Semantic Memory
Are Different Memory Systems?
Figure 6.8
Yellow: Subject is recalling
experiences (episodic).
Blue: Subject is recalling facts
(semantic).
• Neuropsychological (fMRI) evidence for double dissociations
between episodic & semantic memory.
♦
Pattern of activation is different while recalling episodic & semantic memories.
♦
It should be noted that there is overlap between episodic & semantic
memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Back to Diagram of Memory Systems – Episodic Memory versus Priming
234
Tuesday, May 03, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
235
Next:
Lecture 06-2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
236
Explicit vs Implicit Memory
then ....
What Builds Strong Memories?
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/03/2016: Lecture 06-2
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
First, an Example (to be discussed later)
ELK
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
SHIP
PEAR
Diagram of Memory Systems
238
Outline
• Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory
• Explicit and Implicit Memory
Lecture probably
ends here
• What Builds Strong Memories?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
Diagram of Memory Systems - Episodic Memory vs Priming 239
Episodic & Semantic Memory
HUMAN MEMORY
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
Next Topic
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Word Fragment Completion Task - Simplified Version
240
Word Fragment Completion Task (Simplified Version)
• Fill in the blanks to make a word:
_NTE_OPE
ANTELOPE
• Fill in the blanks to make a word:
_ATER_ _LON
_
WATERMELON
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Word Fragment Completion Task - Full Experimental Design 241
Word Fragment Completion (WFC) Task
Stage 1:
Study List A
apple
pear
watermelon
.....
Study List B
dog
moose
antelope
.....
Stage 2
(explicit)
Recall List A
some forget "watermelon"
Recall List B
some forget "antelope"
Stage 3
WFC Task
WFC Task
(implicit)
_ater_ _lon
_nte_ope
_ater_ _lon
_nte_ope
Word Fragment Completion (WFC) Task:
Fill in the blanks to make a word.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Goldstein 4th ed. calls this
the "word completion task.
Results for Word Fragment Completion Task
242
Results for WFC
Stage 1:
Study List A
apple
pear
watermelon
.....
Study List B
dog
moose
antelope
.....
Stage 2
(explicit)
Recall List A
some forget "watermelon"
Recall List B
some forget "antelope"
Stage 3
WFC Task
WFC Task
(implicit)
_ater_ _lon
_nte_ope
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
better
worse
_ater_ _lon
_nte_ope
worse
better
Word Fragment Completion Task - SUMMARY
243
Word Fragment Completion (WFC) - Summary
• WFC performance is better for words that were studied at Stage 1
but forgotten at Stage 2, than for words that were never studied
at Stage 1.
• Subjects have implicit memory for words studied at Stage 1
even if they cannot recall them at Stage 2.
• WFC is an example of priming.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
WFC & Recall in Amnesics & Normal Controls
244
WFC & Recall for Amnesics & Normal Controls
Graf, P., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1985).
Subjects
♦
Amnesics (anterograde):
8 Korsakoff patients
2 non-Korsakoff,
♦
8 Non-Amnesic Alcoholics
♦
8 Non-Amnesic, Non-Alcoholic
Subject groups were similar
in age.
INPT ALC AMN
Amnesics
Non-Amnesic
Alcoholics
Non-Amnesic
Non-Alcoholics
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
INPT ALC AMN
Amnesics
Non-Amnesic
Alcoholics
Non-Amnesic
Non-Alcoholics
Experimental Procedure & Results
245
WFC & Recall for Amnesics & Normal Controls
Graf, P., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1985).
Subject read lists of words.
For each list, ...
1) Subjects rated the words
on a list on scale from
1 = “like extremely” to
5 = “dislike extremely”.
INPT ALC AMN
INPT ALC AMN
2) Recall Trials:
Subjects attempted to recall the words.
3) Implicit Memory Trials: Subjects performed WFC with the words.
Results: Amnesics do just as well as other groups on implicit
memory (WFC) but do much worse on explicit memory (recall).
Explicit Memory  Implicit Memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Warrington & Weiskrantz: Korsakoff Patients Identify Incomplete Figures246
Errors
Related Study by Warrington & Weiskrantz (Figures 6.11 & 6.12)
Day of Training
• Korsakoff patients were asked to identify incomplete pictures
(pictures with parts of the objects erased).
♦
Patients were not asked: Have you seen this before? (explicit memory test)
♦
Patients were asked:
What is it?
(implicit memory test)
• Over three days, the patients improved without remembering previous
training or exposure to the stimuli.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Explicit & Implicit Memory Have Different Forgetting Curves
247
Episodic & Implicit Memory
Show Different Patterns of Forgetting
WFC
% Correct
• Tulving et al. (1982) studied
recognition and WFC among
normal subjects.
Recognition
1 hour
7 days
• Graph to right shows that recognition (episodic memory) and WFC
(implicit memory) show different patterns of forgetting
over time.
• Bottom Line: Explicit (declarative) memory & implicit memory are
based on different memory systems.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Diagram of Memory Systems Reminder that Most Memories Have Explicit & Implicit Aspects
248
Explicit vs Implicit Memory
HUMAN MEMORY
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
Cognition experiments can target (measure) explicit or implicit memory,
but .....
actual memories can have both explicit and implicit aspects to the memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Builds Strong Memories?
249
What Builds Strong Memories?
• What are effective study habits?
Students often want to know the answer to this question.
• Some experiences are remembered easily and for a long time.
Other experiences are forgotten.
What is the difference?
• Some scientific topics are remembered for a long time.
Other topics are forgotten quickly.
What is the difference?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Modal Model of Memory - Reminder of the Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation
250
Control Processes
External
World
Sensory
Store
Short-Term
Store
Retrieval
Encoding
Long-Term
Store
Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation
• Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information
• Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM
• Consolidation – a process that strengthens memories over time.
Consolidation increases the chances for retrieval.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
In General, What Makes Memories Memorable?
251
In General, What Makes Memories Memorable?
• Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective.
• What is effective?
Next
Elaboration & Association
Generation of Related Thoughts
Creating Related Mental Images
Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding
Develop Retrieval Strategies and Retrieval Cues
that Will Be Useful on Future Occasions
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Generation Effect
252
Generation Effect
Generation effect: You are more likely to remember information
that you retrieve or generate (during study) than information that
you simply receive and attempt to “memorize.”
Intuitive idea:
• Mental activity at time of study promotes future recall.
• Any ideas that you generate during study can serve as
retrieval cues when you need to remember the information
later.
Generation Effect
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Anti-Passive Learning
Mantyla Experiment: Self-Generated Stronger than Other-Generated Cues
253
Generating Semantic Associates Creates Strong Retrieval Cues
Mantyla (1986): Purpose
of Study:
(a) to show that semantic associates that were present at study
are effective cues for recall;
(b) self-generated cues are the more effective cues for recall
than are cues that someone else generates.
Memory Task:
Subjects study words. Later they are asked to recall them.
3 experimental conditions (next slide)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
254
Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked
to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall)
Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, see 3 associated words that were produced
by a different subject along with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall
the target word. (cued recall)
Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test
♦
At study, subject just sees the target words.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced
by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 1
255
Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked
to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall)
Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test
List 3 words
that are
What word isrelated
related to: to “snow”:
“white”, “cold”,
♦ At study, see 3 associated words that were produced “wet”?
Uh – “white”,
by a different subject along with each target word.
“cold”, “wet”
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall
the target word. (cued recall)
Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test
♦
At study, subject just sees the target words.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced
by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 2
256
Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked
to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall)
Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test
The word
♦ At study, see 3 associated words that were produced
“snow” is
by a different subject along with each target word.
related to:
♦ At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall“white”,
“cold”, “wet".
the target word. (cued recall)
What word is
related to:
Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at“white”,
test “cold”,
“wet”?
♦
At study, subject just sees the target words.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced
by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 3
257
Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked
to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall)
Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, see 3 associated words that were produced
by a different subject along with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall
the target word. (cued recall)
Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues atRemember
test
the word:
“snow”
♦
At study, subject just sees the target words.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced
What word is
by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word.related to:
“white”, “cold”,
“wet”?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide with Only Summary Descriptions Emphasized
258
Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked
to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall)
Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test
♦
At study, see 3 associated words that were produced
by a different subject along with each target word.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall
the target word. (cued recall)
Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test
♦
At study, subject just sees the target words.
♦
At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced
by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results
259
RESULTS
Condition 1: 90% correct
Condition 2: 55% correct
Condition 3: 17% correct
Condition 1:
Generate cues;
use cues
Condition 2
See cues;
use cues
Condition 3
SUMMARY
See no cues;
use cues
• Cues are helpful at time of test.
• Cues that you have studied are
even more helpful at time of test.
Goldstein, Figure 7.9.
Results from Mantyla (1986)
• Cues that you generated yourself are even more helpful at time of test.
• Why is this the pattern of memory results?
♦
Cues promote retrieval by means of associative connections. (Obvious)
♦
Generating our own cues helps us learn to access meaningful
relationships.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Self-Reference Has Mnemonic Efficacy
260
Self-Reference Has Mnemonic Efficacy
Principle: Self-referential relations are remembered better
than items without self-referential relations.
• "serene" - Does this word rhyme with "siren"?
"serene" - Does this word describe you?
weaker at test
stronger at test
• Ask yourself:
♦
Is this information related to me in any way?
♦
Does this information remind me of anything that has happened to me?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Mental Imagery Enhances Memory
261
Mental Imagery Enhances Memory
• Principle: In general, images are remembered better than words.
• Picture Superiority Effect:
"tiger"
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
versus
Experimental Demonstration of the Efficacy of Mental Images on memory
262
Mental Imagery Enhances Memory
(Bower & Winzenz (1970)
• Repetition Group: Repeated
a word pair, e.g., "boat-treeboat-tree-boat-tree-...."
• Imagery Group: Form a mental
image in which the two objects
are interacting.
Both groups had 5 seconds
per word pair.
• Results: Imagery group
remembered over twice
as much in cued recall.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Figure 7.3
Experiment re Image Interaction & Bizarreness
263
Subjects had to learn
word pairs that were
accompanied by
pictures. E.g.,
PIANO + CIGAR
Interacting
Wollen, K. A., Weber, A., &
Lowry, D. H. (1972).
Bizarreness versus interaction
of mental images as
determinants of learning.
Cognitive Psychology, 3, 518523.
Non-Interacting
Effects of Image Interaction & Bizarreness
Not Bizarre
Bizarre
• Pictures were either non-bizarre or bizarre.
• Pictures were either non-interacting or
interacting.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results for Interaction & Bizarreness 264
Memory was better
for interacting
images than noninteracting images.
Bizarreness had no
effect.
Interacting
Wollen, K. A., Weber, A., &
Lowry, D. H. (1972).
Bizarreness versus interac-tion
of mental images as
determinants of learning.
Cognitive Psychology, 3, 518523.
Non-Interacting
Results for Image Interaction & Bizarreness
Not Bizarre
Bizarre
Evidence suggests that in general, interacting images
are a power mnemonic tool.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Why Does Generating Related Ideas Promote Future Memory?
265
Why Does Generating Ideas Improve Memory?
• Ideas that you generate serve as retrieval cues.
Ideas that you generate create associations with other ideas.
Links to these ideas serve as retrieval cues.
The more links you have to a concept, the more ways
you have to access this information.
• Mental imagery creates stronger retrieval cues than
verbal descriptions.
• The mental activity of discovering associations and relationships
is itself a skill and a habit.
♦
Using this skill improves this skill.
♦
Using this habit strenthens this habit.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Class Problem: Suggest Ways to Strengthen a Memory About the Hippocampus
- END
266
Class Exercise: Suggest How to Commit This to Memory
COMMIT TO MEMORY: “Memories are not stored in the hippocampus,
but the hippocampus is critical for packaging memories and for moving
them into storage.” (Metaphor)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------Generate some images or analogies that describe the functioning of the
hippocampus.
• Hippocampus is like a records clerk in a business.
• Hippocampus is like a antique collector who has
a very small shop with a very large warehouse.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
.
END
267
Next:
Lecture 06-3
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
268
Memorization is NOT a Good Learning Strategy
Then, ....
Testing, Spacing and Organization
Promote Future Retrieval
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/04/2016: Lecture 06-3
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• Memorization is NOT an effective learning strategy.
"memorization" = "maintenance rehearsal" (psychologists' word)
• Depth of Processing Hypothesis
• Testing effect - testing enhances future recall of tested material
• The Spacing Effect
Lecture probably
ends here
• Organizing the material strengthens memory for the memory
• Illusions of Learning
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
Diagram for the Modal Model of Memory Emphasis on Processes that Strenghen Memories 270
Control Processes
External
World
Sensory
Store
Short-Term
Store
Retrieval
Encoding
Long-Term
Store
Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation
• Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information
• Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM
• Consolidation – a process that strengthens memories over time.
Consolidation increases the chances for retrieval.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
In General, What Makes Memories Memorable?
271
In General, What Makes Memories Memorable?
• Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective.
Next
• What is effective?
Elaboration & Association
Generation of Related Thoughts
Creating Related Mental Images
Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding
Develop Retrieval Strategies and Retrieval Cues
that Will Be Useful on Future Occasions
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Generation Effect
272
Maintenance Rehearsal & Elaborative Rehearsal
• Maintenance Rehearsal – repeating to-be-remembered information
over and over (phonological loop)
"Memorization" = Maintenance Rehearsal
(cognitive psychologist's term)
• Elaborative rehearsal – drawing connections between
to-be-remembered information and other information,
especially connections based on meaning.
♦
Memory for meaning
♦
Form associations between what you want to remember and other
ideas, facts, concepts, etc. Create retrieval cues.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Mere Repetition is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory
273
Mere Repetition Is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory
The amount of maintenance rehearsal has very little
influence on the likelihood of correct recall.
Craik & Watkins (1973):
• Subjects heard sequences of words.
Subjects task was to remember the most recent word in the list
that started with a particular letter, e.g., "p".
• Example: Study the following list of words:
book,pin, car, tree, peach, dog, hat, ink, fog, post, bird, clock
rehearse "pin"
rehearse "peach"
last "p" word
Correct answer = "post"
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Continue Craik & Watkins (1973) – Differences in Number of Rehearsals
274
Mere Repetition Is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory
book,pin, car, tree, peach, dog, hat, ink, fog, post, bird, clock
rehearse "pin"
rehearse "peach"
last "p" word
• At end of experiment, subjects were asked to recall as many
of the words on the lists as they could remember.
• Different "p" words are rehearsed a different number of times.
♦
E.g., "peach" is rehearsed more than "pin" because "peach" has 4 non-"p"
words following it and "pin" has only 2 non-"p" words following it.
• Finding: Likelihood of recall was unrelated to number of intervening
non-p words, i.e., unrelated to the amount of maintenance rehearsal.
♦
Memorization is an ineffective learning strategy.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Maintenance vs Elaborative Rehearsal – Depth of Processing Hypothesis
275
Depth of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
• Depth of Processing Hypothesis: Depth of processing at time
of study is the main determinant of ease of remembering.
• Processing of to-be-remembered material proceeds from shallow
features to deeper content.
SHALLOW
DEEP
Letters in words
Sound of words
....
....
Meaning
Relationship to other knowledge
• Another way to state the depth of processing hypothesis:
Speed of processing is slower but strength of memory trace is greater
when encoding occurs at deeper levels of processing.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis
276
Craik & Tulving Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis
Experimental Paradigm: On each trial, the subject sees a word and
answers a question about the word.
Condition 1 (very shallow processing):
Example: Does the word “dungeon” contain the letter “t”?
Condition 2 (moderately shallow processing):
Example: Does the word “dungeon" rhyme with “engine"?
Condition 3 (deeper processing of meaning):
Example: Does the word “dungeon" fit into the sentence,
“The prisoner was kept in a ______ for two years."?
• Later the subject is asked to recall the words,
and the percentage of correct recall is recorded.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results re Experiment
277
Results re Depth of Processing Hypothesis
Finding: Reaction time is slower but percent correct recall
gets better as processing gets deeper and deeper.
♦
Recall improves with deeper processing during study.
♦
Result supports depth of processing hypothesis.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Confounding of Depth of Processing with Encoding Duration
278
Confounding of Depth of Processing
with Duration of Encoding
Two confounded aspects of deep processing:
1. Deep processing takes longer than shallow processing
(in general).
2. Deep processing emphasizes the meaning of the to-be-learned
material and its relationship to other pieces of knowledge.
Question: Does deeper processing produce better memory because it
takes longer or because it emphasizes meaning?
Answer: Clever experiments demonstrate it is the type of processing
(meaning-based) and not the duration of processing that creates the
stronger memory.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Outline of Effective Study Habits - END
279
Exception to Depth of Processing Hypothesis:
Transfer-Appropriate-Processing
Exception: Deeper processing at time of study is less effective if the
memory test is based on cues that are not meaning related.
Example: Transfer Appropriate Processing
♦
♦
♦
Shallow Study Task: Does the word “dungeon” contain the letter “t”?
Moderate Study Task: Does the word “dungeon" rhyme with “engine"?
Deeper Study Task: Does the word “dungeon" fit into the sentence,
“The prisoner was kept in a ______ for two years."?
• Test: Can you recall a word that rhymes with “luncheon”?
• Result: Moderate study task produces best performance on this
test because it focuses on word sound, i.e., the moderate study task
requires transfer appropriate processing.
• Usually, in everyday life, we need to retrieve information that is
meaningfully related to a current problem, so focusing on meaning
during study is usually more appropriate to the context of retrieval.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Makes Strong Memories?
280
In General, What Makes Memories Memorable?
• Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective.
• What is effective?
Elaboration & Association
Generation of Related Thoughts
Creating Related Mental Images
Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding
Develop Retrieval Strategies and Retrieval Cues
that Will Be Useful on Future Occasions
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
The Testing Effect
281
The Testing Effect
• Testing memories strengthens memories,
i.e., it increases the likelihood of retrieving the memories at a later time.
♦
It is not necessary to give the student feedback
whether his or her answers are correct.
♦
This is true regardless of whether the subject succeeds in retrieving
the information at the time of testing.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Roediger & Karpicke Experiment that Demonstrates the Testing Effect
282
Testing Improves
Later Retrieval
Recall
test
Recall
test
Delay
Testing Group
Read
passage
Solve
math
problems
7 minutes
2 minutes
7 minutes
5 minutes
2 days, or
1 week
Reread
passage
Delay
Recall
test
Rereading Group
Figure 7.6
• Read prose passage for 7 minutes (study)
Roediger & Karpicke (2006)
• Solve math problem for 2 minutes. (take a break)
• Testing group: Take a recall test for 7 minutes.
Rereading group: Reread passage for 7 minutes.
• Both groups get a recall test following a delay
(5 minutes; 2 days; 1 week)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results from Roediger & Karpicke Study
283
Testing Improves
Later Retrieval
Recall
test
Recall
test
Delay
Testing Group
Read
passage
Solve
math
problems
7 minutes
2 minutes
7 minutes
5 minutes
2 days, or
1 week
Reread
passage
Delay
Recall
test
Rereading Group
Figure 7.6
• Read prose passage for 7 minutes (study)
Roediger & Karpicke (2006)
• Solve math problem for 2 minutes. (take a break)
• Testing group: Take a recall test for 7 minutes.
Rereading group: Reread passage for 7 minutes.
• Both groups get a recall test following a delay
(5 minutes; 2 days; 1 week)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results from Roediger & Karpicke Study
284
• Rereading produces better
memory after 5 minute
delay.
• Testing produces better
memory after 2 day &
1 week delay.
• The superiority of recall
test increases over time.
Proportion of Idea Units Recalled
Results for the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Study
Rereading
Testing
5 minutes
2 days
1 week
Delay
• Why does the recall test produce better memory (more successful
retrieval) after the longer delays?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Why Does Testing Have Greater Advantage at Longer Delays?
285
• Explanation 1:
Rereading the material
strengthens the episodic
memory for the experience
of studying the target material.
• Testing strengthens the
semantic memory for
associations between the target
material and other knowledge.
• Testing also strengthen priming
between associated ideas and
the target material.
• Episodic memories lose strength
faster than implicit memories and
semantic memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Proportion of Idea Units Recalled
Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays?
Rereading
Testing
5 minutes
2 days
1 week
Delay
Typical mistake: People think
that the primary goal of study
is to encode the information.
Explanation 2 for the Same Results
286
• Explanation 2:
Retrieval is a mental skill –
it improves with practice.
• Attempting to retrieve
information X helps
you develop better
retrieval cues for X.
• Attempting to retrieve
information X will
consolidate the memory
of X.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Proportion of Idea Units Recalled
Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays?
Rereading
Testing
5 minutes
2 days
1 week
Delay
Typical mistake: People think
that the primary goal of study
is to encode the information.
Organizing the Material Increases the Chance of Future Retrieval 287
Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits
Goldstein's recommendations are largely the same as the one's I listed earlier in this lecture. These
recommendations largely orginate in the work of Robert Bjork, a UCLA cognitive psychologist.
• Elaborate on the given information
• Generate associations to other knowledge
• Test yourself without an answer key in front of you
• Organize the material in a meaningful way
Next
• Take breaks
• Beware of "illusions of learning"
• NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit!
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Organization Promotes Stronger Memory
288
Organizing the Information at Encoding
Improves Later Retrieval
• Principle: It is easier to remember information that is organized in
some reasonable way than information that is disorganized.
• Bower, Clark, Lesgold, & Winzenz (1969): Words that are organized into
categories are remembered much better than the same words in a
disorganized list.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Why Organizing Promotes Future Retrieval
289
Why Organization Promotes Future Retrieval
• Professors will tell you: “Try to understand the material!
Don’t just memorize it.”
• The effort to organize the material has mnemonic value because:
(i)
Organizing the material causes the subject to chunk the material.
It is easier to retrieve a few chunks than many separate pieces of
information.
(ii)
Organizing the material generally requires linking it to other knowledge.
These links serve as retrieval cues.
(iii)
Generating your own organization is more beneficial than having
someone else give you an organization.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
The Spacing Effect
290
The Spacing Effect
• Massed practice: Many trials with the same stimuli are undertaken
without interruption.
• E.g., study for 2 hours straight.
• Distributed practice: Trials with the same stimuli are separated by
periods with other activities.
• Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else),
• Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else),
• Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else),
• Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else).
• Spacing Effect:
Distributed practice produces stronger memories than massed practice.
• Why does the spacing effect occur?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Overview Diagram: Effective Study Methods
291
FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING & RETRIEVAL
Active Memory
Organization
Create Connections
Generate
related ideas
Interactive
Imagery
(boat-tree)
Link to self
(self-reference
effect)
Testing
Recall by groups
i.e., recall related
items together
Present in an
organized way
(“tree” experiment)
Meaningful
framework
(“balloon”
experiment)
Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.5, p. 184
Repeat Goldstein's Recommendations for Study - Emphasis on Illusions of Learning
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
292
Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits
• Elaborate on the given information
• Generate associations to other knowledge
• Test yourself without an answer key in front of you
• Organize the material in a meaningful way
• Take breaks
• Beware of "illusions of learning"
Next
• NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit!
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Illusions of Learning
293
Illusions of Learning
• Illusions of learning - some study habits produce a false impression
of having learned something.
• Immediate testing versus delayed testing.
♦
Immediate testing: Test immediately after a period of study.
♦
Delayed testing: Test after a delay of 20 minutes.
♦
Students who engage in immediate testing feel more confident that
they have learned the material than students who engage in delayed testing.
♦
Students who engage in immediate testing later perform worse than
students who engage in delayed testing.
• Rereading the material give students greater confidence that they know
the material then testing, but it actually leads to lower performance.
• Goldstein has other examples.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
END
294
Next:
Lecture 06-4
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
295
Consolidation of Memories
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/05/2016: Lecture 06-4
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• Consolidation of memories
• Standard model of consolidation
(Alternative theory: The multiple trace model of consolidation)
Lecture probably
ends here
• Disruption of memory reconsolidation as a treatment for PTSD
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
Consolidation of Memories 297
Consolidation of Memories
• Recently created memories are typically fragile.
♦
Without additional retrievals, they are often too weak to retrieve.
♦
A concussion soon after learning can cause permanent loss of a memory.
♦
Fragility of new memories implies that it takes cognitive processing after the
initial experience to create a strong memory.
Goldstein, Figure 7.16
Typical pattern of retrograde
amnesia. The recent past
is the least consolidated it is the most likely to be lost.
More distant past is more
consolidated - it is more likely
to be preserved.
• Consolidation is the process by which a memory is transformed from an
unstable state to a more permanent state.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Is Happening During Consolidation?
298
What Is Happening During Memory Consolidation?
Changes are happening at two levels:
• Synaptic Consolidation:
Repeated experience causes changes at the level of the synapse.
♦
These changes occur quickly, over a matter of minutes.
• Systems Consolidation:
Repeated retrievals cause changes in the organization of
neural circuits that represent memories.
♦
These changes occur gradually, over days, months or even years.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Synaptic Changes During Learning – Long-Term Potentiation
299
Synaptic Consolidation
Goldstein (2014),
Figure 7.14,
p. 194
Structural
Changes
Increased
firing
(LTP)
1st Presentation
of Stimulus
Continued
Presentation
of Stimulus
After Many
Presentations
of Stimulus
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in
increased firing to the same stimulus.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Diagram without Emphasis Rectangles
300
Synaptic Consolidation
Goldstein (2014),
Figure 7.14,
p. 194
Structural
Changes
Increased
firing
(LTP)
1st Presentation
of Stimulus
Continued
Presentation
of Stimulus
After Many
Presentations
of Stimulus
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in
increased firing to the same stimulus.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
System Consolidation - Long-Term Process of Memory Formation
301
System Consolidation:
The Time Course of Memory Formation
Figure 7.15 (p. 195) attempts to explain the role of the hippocampus
in the encoding and consolidation of memories.
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Hippocampus
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Left
302
The Time Course of Memory Formation
Initial Encoding of
Current Experience
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Hippocampus
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Middle
303
The Time Course of Memory Formation
Retrieval of
Episodic Memory
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Hippocampus
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Right
304
The Time Course of Memory Formation
Retrieval (After Much Learning)
of Episodic Memory
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Hippocampus
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Cortical Areas
Hippocampus
Transition to Diagrams That Show the Same Process But With Different Graphics
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
305
The next slides display the same ideas as the preceding
slides, but with more informative graphics.
The next set of slides show:
The Standard Model
of Memory Consolidation
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Explanation of Consolidation in terms of Brain Diagrams
306
This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers
website (http://vig.prenhall.com) for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN 9780131825086).
Encoding
Event or
episode
1: Processing of current
information activates
different brain areas in
occipital, parietal, temporal
and frontal cortex.
2: Multiple brain activations
spread to hippocampus
(convergence zone).
Event or
episode
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Somehow, hippocampus binds
multimodal inputs together and
encodes long-term memory.
Diagram of Brain Activity During Retrieval
307
This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers
website (http://vig.prenhall.com) for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN 9780131825086).
Retrieval
3: At time of recall, partial cues stimulate
some brain areas that were also activated
at encoding.
Partial
cue
4: Activation
spreads to the
hippocampus.
5: Somehow, the
hippocampus triggers
pattern completion
(partial reactivation of
original activation
pattern).
Partial
cue
Partial
cue
Same Diagram with Statement of Recapitulation Hypothesis
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
308
Retrieval
This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers
website (http://vig.prenhall.com) for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN 9780131825086).
Reactivation Hypothesis:
(Goldstein, p. 195)
Episodic retrieval involves
reinstatement of activations that
were present during encoding.
Hippocampus plays an important role
in reactivation.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Reactivation Before & After Consolidation
309
Standard Model of Consolidation:
Retrieval
BEFORE consolidation
has been completed.
Retrieval
AFTER consolidation
has been completed.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation
310
Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation
• Multiple trace model is opposed to the standard model of consolidation.
• According to this model, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval
of remote episodic memories as well as recent episodic memories,
but only if they are not semanticized.
• Semanticization of Episodic Memories & the Remember/Know Distinction
♦
Hippocampus is active during retrieval of remote episodic memories that
the subjects "remember", but not during the retrieval of memories that the
subjects "know" are true, but don't "remember".
♦
Intuitive ideas: Over time, memories can become facts (as opposed
to retrieval of experiences). Retrieval of facts may not involve the
hippocampus to the same degree as retrieval of experiences.
○
This is called the semanticization of memories (transformation of a memory
from being episodic to being semantic).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Consolidation & Reconsolidation
311
Consolidation & Reconsolidation
• Fact to be discussed later in this lecture:
♦
When a memory is retrieved, it is vulnerable to change.
♦
After retrieval of a memory, it is necessary to store the memory again to
return it to a permanent state.
• Consolidation refers to processes
that change an initially encoded
memory into a permanent memory.
• Reconsolidation refers to processes
that restore a memory to a more
permanent form after it has been
retrieved.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Sometimes consolidation
& reconsolidation are
referred to together as
“consolidation.”
Role of Sleep in Consolidation
312
Interestingly Enough, .....
• Sleep (dreaming?) plays a functional role in promoting consolidation.
♦
Rat brain cells that fire together while exploring a location also show
increased firing during subsequent sleep. Not true of other cells that did not
fire during exploration.
♦
Disruption of dreaming seems to disrupt consolidation.
♦
Similar effects with humans who are learning to play tetris.
• Some evidence suggests that if a subject expects to be tested
on Topic A but not on Topic B, then sleep (possibly, dreaming)
enhances future memory of Topic A more than Topic B.
• Role of sleep in consolidation is not understood, but there
seems to be a significant relationship between sleep and
consolidation.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary of Standard Model of Consolidation
313
Summary re Standard Model of Consolidation
Consolidation & reconsolidation ...
... long-term memory representations become more stable
over time;
... hippocampus plays a central role in retrieval of incompletely
consolidated memories;
... over time, retrieval of memories becomes independent
from the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe
activity.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Memory Representations are Malleable at Time of Retrieval
314
Memories Representations Are Malleable
At Time of Retrieval
• Hypothesis:
When memories are retrieved, they are vulnerable to change.
• Under special circumstances, when memories are retrieved,
memories can be altered, even wiped out.
♦
Can these ideas be used to develop a treatment for PTSD?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat
315
Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat
Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the
amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406, 722-726.
• If a tone is paired with an electric shock, a rat will learn
to freeze when it hears the tone (classical conditioning of fear).
• Anisomycin – antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis that
is required in the formation of new memories.
• Administering anisomycin to a rat can cause it to fail to learn.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Experimental Design (Diagram of Rat Learning or Unlearning)
316
Experimental Design
Condition 1:
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin
Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
(shows no learning)
Condition 2:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Freezes to tone
(shows learning)
Condition 3:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock.
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
(shows no learning)
Figure 7.20
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Repeat This Slide with Emphasis Rectangles
317
Experimental Design
Condition 1:
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin
Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
(shows no learning)
Condition 2:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Freezes to tone
(shows learning)
Condition 3:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock.
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
(shows no learning)
Figure 7.20
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Summary of Results
318
Summary of Main Finding
Condition 1:
Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin
Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
Combining drug with tone &
shock on Day 1 prevents
fear conditioning.
(shows no learning)
Condition 2:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Freezes to tone
Drug on Day 2 does not undo
fear conditioning.
(shows learning)
Condition 3:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock.
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
(shows no learning)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Combining drug with retrieval
of fear conditioning on Day 2
undoes fear conditioning.
Retrieval Makes Day 1 Learning Vulnerable to Change
319
Interpretation
• Retrieval makes the fear conditioning from Day 1 vulnerable to change.
Combining retrieval with drug prevents reconsolidation of memory of fear
conditioning, thereby causing loss of conditioning.
Condition 3
displayed
to the right:
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
• Nader et al. (2000) state that the memory trace is "labile" during retrieval,
i.e., its form can be changed at that time.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Using Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD
320
Note Added After the Lecture on Thursday 05/05/2016
The following slides pertaining to the treatment of PTSD are the same as
the ones that were displayed in class, but an improved version of these
slides will be presented on Monday 05/09/2016. You should use the
Monday slides because they are more clear.
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
321
Using the Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD
Brunet, A., Orr, S. P., Tremblay, J., Robertson, K., Nader, K., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Effect of postretrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic
imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 503-506.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Strong fear and stress
responses are evoked by reminders of the initial traumatic event.
• Brunet et al. asked whether human PTSD patients can lose
or at least diminish their fear and stress conditioning by
techniques that are similar to Nader et al.'s demonstration
that rats can lose their fear conditioning.
♦
Study used propranolol, a drug that is used to prevent traumatic memories
if administered immediately following a traumatic event. Propranolol
reduces the fear & stress conditioning of trauma.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Brunet et al.'s Subjects Were PTSD Patients
322
Brunet et al.'s Study of PTSD Subjects
• PTSD patients: Childhood sexual abuse, motor vehicle accident, rape,
being taken hostage.
♦
Comorbid mental disorders included: major depressive disorder, panic
disorder, social phobia, bulimia, generalized anxiety disorder.
• Two scripts were prepared for each patient that described the
events that produced the trauma for that patient.
• 19 PTSD patients were randomly assigned to either a treatment
condition or a placebo control condition.
♦
Both Conditions: Patient hears a 30-second recording describing
their traumatic experience.
♦
Treatment Condition: Patient is injected with propranolol immediately
following recording.
♦
Control Condition: Patient is injected with a placebo that has no active
ingredients.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Test of Treatment - Was It Efficacious? 323
Test of Treatment
• One week later, the patients listened to a taped version of
the scripts that described their traumatic experience, and
are asked to imagine the traumatic events while listening to the tape.
♦
Physiological measures of stress and anxiety are taken while patients
listen to the tape.
• Question: When the patients hear the taped version of traumatic
experience, will they experience fear, anxiety, etc. of PTSD?
♦
I.e., has the drug treatment reduced or eliminated their tendency to
associate fear responses with these memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Analogy Between Rat Conditioning and PTSD Treatment
324
Analogy Between PTSD Treatment & Conditioning
HUMAN
Traumatic experience
Listen to taped
description of
traumatic experience
RAT
Tone + shock conditioning in the rat
Rat hears tone without the shock
Injection of propranolol
immediately after recall
Injection of anisomycin
immediately after rat hears tone
Later, will the human seem to
have unlearned the fear
conditioning to the traumatic
memories?
Later, the rat seems to have
unlearned the fear conditioning
to the tone.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Experimental Results
325
Tensing of
Frowning Muscles
Y-Axis Are Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate
Brunet et al. Results
Heart Rate
Skin Conductance
Corrugator EMG
• Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
• Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to Malleability of Memory During Retrieval
326
Tensing of
Frowning Muscles
Y-Axis Are Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate
Brunet et al. Results
Heart Rate
Skin Conductance
Corrugator EMG
• Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
• Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to Malleability of Memory During Retrieval
327
Thursday, May 05, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
328
Next:
Lecture 07-1
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
329
Retrieval, Memory Modification
and The Cycle of Consolidation
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/09/2016: Lecture 07-1
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• Brunet’s treatment of unwanted memories in PTSD patients.
• The cycle of consolidation
Lecture probably
ends here
• Introduction to autobiographical memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
OLD SLIDE: Nader’s Method for Undoing Fear Conditioning 331
Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat
Skim past:
Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the
amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406, 722-726.
• If a tone is paired with an electric shock, a rat will learn
to freeze when it hears the tone (classical conditioning of fear).
• Anisomycin – antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis that
is required in the formation of new memories.
• Administering anisomycin to a rat can cause it to fail to learn.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Experimental Design (Diagram of Rat Learning or Unlearning)
332
Summary of Main Finding
Skim past:
Condition 1:
Day 1: Tone + Shock + anisomycin
Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
Combining drug with tone &
shock on Day 1 prevents
fear conditioning.
(shows no learning)
Condition 2:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock
Day 3: Freezes to tone
Drug on Day 2 does not undo
fear conditioning.
(shows learning)
Condition 3:
Day 1: Tone + Shock
Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock.
Day 3: Does not freeze to tone
(shows no learning)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Combining drug with retrieval
of fear conditioning on Day 2
undoes fear conditioning.
Retrieval Makes Day 1 Learning Vulnerable to Change
333
Interpretation
• Retrieval makes the fear conditioning from Day 1 vulnerable to change.
Combining retrieval with drug prevents reconsolidation of memory of fear
conditioning, thereby causing loss of conditioning.
Condition 3
displayed
to the right:
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
• Nader et al. (2000) state that the memory trace is "labile" during retrieval,
i.e., its form can be changed at that time.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Using Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD
334
Using the Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD
Brunet, A., Orr, S. P., Tremblay, J., Robertson, K., Nader, K., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Effect of postretrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic
imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 503-506.
Skim past:
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Strong fear and stress
responses are evoked by reminders of the initial traumatic event.
• Brunet et al. asked whether human PTSD patients can lose
or at least diminish their fear and stress conditioning by
techniques that are similar to Nader et al.'s demonstration
that rats can lose their fear conditioning.
♦
Study used propranolol, a drug that is used to prevent traumatic memories
if administered immediately following a traumatic event. Propranolol
reduces the fear & stress conditioning of trauma.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Brunet et al.'s Subjects Were PTSD Patients
335
Brunet et al.'s Study of PTSD Subjects
Skim past:
• PTSD patients: Childhood sexual abuse, motor vehicle accident, rape,
being taken hostage.
♦
Comorbid mental disorders included: major depressive disorder, panic
disorder, social phobia, bulimia, generalized anxiety disorder.
• Two scripts were prepared for each patient that described the
events that produced the trauma for that patient.
• 19 PTSD patients were randomly assigned to either
a TREATMENT Condition or a CONTROL Condition.
(Conditions described on next slide.)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Test of Treatment - Was It Efficacious? 336
Brunet et al.'s Study: Treatment and Control Conditions
Patient hears recorded description
of traumatic experience
Patient is injected
with propranolol.
7 Days
Patient is injected
with placebo.
7 Days
Patient hears
another recorded description
of traumatic experience
Patient hears
another recorded description
of traumatic experience
Measure anxiety
Measure anxiety
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Test of Treatment - Was It Efficacious? 337
Test of Treatment
Skim past:
• One week later, the patients listened to a taped version of
the scripts that described their traumatic experience, and
are asked to imagine the traumatic events while listening to the tape.
♦
Physiological measures of stress and anxiety are taken while patients
listen to the tape.
• Question: When the patients hear the taped version of traumatic
experience, will they experience fear, anxiety, etc. of PTSD?
♦
I.e., has the drug treatment reduced or eliminated their tendency to
associate fear responses with these memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Analogy Between Rat Conditioning and PTSD Treatment
338
Analogy Between PTSD Treatment & Conditioning
HUMAN
Traumatic experience
Listen to taped
description of
traumatic experience
Injection of propranolol
immediately after recall
RAT
Tone + shock conditioning in the rat
Rat hears tone without the shock
Injection of anisomycin
immediately after rat hears tone
?
Later, will the human seem to
have unlearned the fear
conditioning to the traumatic
memories?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Later, the rat seems to have
unlearned the fear conditioning
to the tone.
Experimental Results
339
Tensing of
Frowning Muscles
Y-Axis Are Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate
Brunet et al. Results
Heart Rate
Skin Conductance
Corrugator EMG
• Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
• Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to Malleability of Memory During Retrieval
340
Tensing of
Frowning Muscles
Y-Axis Are Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate
Brunet et al. Results
Heart Rate
Skin Conductance
Corrugator EMG
• Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
• Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to Malleability of Memory During Retrieval
341
Malleability of Memories During Retrieval
• Learned associations can be lost during retrieval
♦
Rats unlearned tone-shock connection
♦
Humans unlearn (to some degree) the association between a
traumatic episodic memory and the emotional response.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
This Slide + Retrieval Strengthens Memory (Consolidation/Reconsolidation)
342
Malleability of Memories During Retrieval
• Learned associations can be lost during retrieval
• Consolidation & Reconsolidation –
Memories can be strengthened during retrieval.
♦
Thinking about something produces better future recall.
♦
Practice testing (retrieval) produces better future recall.
♦
The memory becomes more primed,
i.e., more easily retrieved as an associate of something else.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
This Slide + Query: Do These Facts Contradict Each Other?
343
Malleability of Memories During Retrieval
• Learned associations can be lost during retrieval
• Consolidation & Reconsolidation –
Memories can be strengthened during retrieval.
• Do these results contradict each other?
No!
• Stored representations can change during retrieval.
♦
Usually the change makes the memory stronger, better organized,
more linked to other memories. The memory becomes more primed,
i.e., more easily retrieved as an associate of something else.
♦
The opposite can also happen,
○
○
E.g., rats unlearn their fear conditioning, or humans become desensitized to memories
of trauma. This is a special case that is based on the injection of drugs that would not normally be present.
E.g., while we think about past events, i.e., during retrieval, we may distort the facts or
even falsify what was once a true memory. Psychologists believe that this happens to everyone.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Conclusions re Consolidation
344
Conclusion re Consolidation
• Consolidation occurs through reactivation of memories,
followed by re-encoding of the memories.
• Hippocampus plays a major role in reactivation of recent episodic
memories.
♦
Standard Model of Consolidation:
After the memories have been consolidated,
the hippocampus plays a reduced role in retrieval of episodic memories.
♦
Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation:
After the memories have been consolidated, the
hippocampus plays a reduced role in retrieval of episodic memories that have been semanticized
(turned into semantic memories, i.e., “remember” the memory), but not for episodic memories that
continue to be episodic, i.e., “know” that this is what happened.
• Memories are malleable during or shortly after retrieval.
• PBS video titled “Memory Hackers”:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xS_OiKvoqbo
Excellent discussion of how memories are created.
Thank you, Lindsay.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
The Cycle of Consolidation
345
The Cycle of Consolidation
Cycle of consolidation (JM’s term):
♦
Repeatedly retrieving some memories.
♦
Possibly modifying the memories.
♦
Reconsolidating the memories, possibly with modifications.
• The cycle of consolidation happens spontaneously in many different
situations.
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Image of a Man Thinking About a Conflict with Significant Other 346
Not-So-Instant Replay of Interpersonal Conflict
...
...
...
...
...
she
...,doesn’t
etc., etc.,
careetc.,
if PQR!
...
I asked
hersaid
why
EFG?
but she
soABC!
Ithinks
said XYZ.
she
JKL.
...
...
...
...
...
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Image of a Man Thinking About How to Compute a T-Test 347
Statistics Problem Solving
...
...
......
...
the
difference
the etc.,
What’s between
the
foretc.,
SE(X...
̅ 1 – X̅2)?
..., formula
etc.,
Does
itWhat’s
matter
ifT-test?
the
How do
I calculate
aare
What
the
degrees
of
deviation and the standard error?
...
samplestandard
sizes
different?
... are
freedom
of
... SSpooled?
...
...
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Dwelling On Something Involves Lots of Retrievals – END 348
Dwelling on Something Usually Involves Lots of Retrieval
• Retrieval creates a the potential for modification of memories.
• Retrieval induced memory change happens very often.
• We spontaneously engage in thinking patterns that cause
retrieval-induced memory change. This is the cycle of consolidation.
♦
Retrieval induced memory change is not just a tool for better study habits.
♦
Retrieval induced memory change is not just a tool for clinical modification
of memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
END – OR – Start Autobiographical Memory
349
Autobiographical Memory (AM)
• Autobiographical memories are memories of one's personal
experiences and history.
• Many autobiographical memories include episodic memories.
♦
E.g., I remember listening to a lecture on statistical theory last week,
i.e., I remember where I was sitting in the room, who was around me, etc.
• Many autobiographical memories include semantic memories.
♦
E.g., I remember the name of my elementary school, but the name
isn’t connected to a particular experience.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
AM & Mental Imagery
350
AM & Mental Imagery
• AM’s often include memories of visual, auditory, olfactory or
haptic aspects of the memory.
♦
Memory of a place might include a visual memory.
♦
Memory of food might include visual or olfactory aspects.
• Greenberg and Rubin (2003)
♦
Patients who cannot recognize objects also experience loss
of autobiographical memory
♦
Visual experience plays a role in forming and retrieving AM
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Do AM’s Involve Distinct Patterns of Brain Activity?
351
Do AM’s Involve Distinct Patterns of Brain Activity?
• Subjects (Duke undergrads) took
photos of campus landmarks.
• Later subjects viewed photos during
fMRI scan.
OWN Photos: Photos taken by the
subject.
LAB Photos: Photos taken by someone
else, not by the subject.
Figure 8.1
Goldstein, p. 209, based on Cabeza, Prince,
Daselaar, Greenberg, Budde, Dalcos, et. al.
(2004).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
fMRI Results for OWN and LAB Photos (text description)
352
fMRI Results for OWN Photos & LAB Photos
• Both types of photos activated similar brain structures
♦
Medial temporal lobe (MTL) (typical of episodic memory)
♦
Parietal cortex (typical of scene processing)
• OWN-photos activated more of the
♦
Prefrontal cortex (PFC) (information about self)
♦
Hippocampus (recollection)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
These interpretations
involve theory
(intelligent guesswork).
fMRI Results for OWN and LAB Photos (fMRI Images)
353
fMRI Images that Support Interpretation on Preceding Slide
(a) Parietal cortex
(c) Hippocampus
Figure 8.2. fMRI response in three brain
regions.
• Yellow lines: Response to OWN
photos
• Blue lines: Response to LAB photos
(b) Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
• OWN photos produce stronger
response than LAB photos in
PFC & hippocampus.
END
354
Next:
Lecture 07-2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
355
Flashbulb Memories
then:
The Role of Schemas in Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/10/2016: Lecture 07-2
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• Flashbulb memories
♦
How do they change over time?
♦
Are they based on different mechanisms than everyday memories
• The role of schemas in memory
("schemas" a.k.a. "schemata")
Lecture probably
ends here
• Source monitoring and memory errors
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
What Are Flashbulb Memorise? 357
Flashbulb Memories (FBM's)
• Hypothesis: Memory for a dramatic or shocking event is preserved
as if a photographic image was made by using a flashbulb with a
camera.
♦
Do you remember where were you and what were you doing
when you first heard about the attack on the World Trade Center?
♦
Do you have memories of a major accident, e.g., a car accident?
QUESTIONS:
• Do flashbulb memories differ in strength from regular memories?
How do they change over time?
• Do flashbulb memories involve different memory mechanisms
from those that create or maintain ordinary memories?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Creates Autobiographical Memories that Lasts a Long Time? 358
What Creates AM’s that Last a Long Time?
• Self-generation of associations (connecting a memory to other
knowledge)
• Distinctiveness
• Personal importance causes repeated retrievals of a memory.
Consolidation & reconsolidation.
• Distributed practice as opposed to massed practice
• Strong emotions enhance memory
♦
♦
Hamann, Ely, Grafton, & Kilts (1999): PET study.
Showed subject very pleasant, very unpleasant and neutral pictures.
♦
Emotionally charged pictures produced stronger amygdala response,
and better memory.
♦
Cahill, Babinsky, Markowitsch, & McGaugh (1995). Patient with damaged
amygdala (B. P.) had normal memory for unemotional narratives, but did
not show enhanced memory for emotional parts of a narrative.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Do FBM's Involve a Special Memory Mechanism? 359
Is There A Special Memory Mechanism
for Flashbulb Memories (FBMs)?
Pro: Special Mechanism
• FBMs are consequential – they have high impact on our lives.
• FBMs often produce strong emotions.
Con: Special Mechanism
• Narrative rehearsal hypothesis – we think repeatedly about
these events. They are only special because of this rehearsal.
• Just because we have vivid memories for FBMs doesn't mean
that the memories are accurate.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Are FBM's Accurate? 360
Accuracy of FBM's
• Mixed evidence
• Neisser & Harsch (1992)
Subjects filled out a questionnaire within 1 day of Challenger disaster
(1986), and a similar questionnaire 2.5 years later.
♦
Subjects were asked how they learned about the disaster.
♦
Large distortions.
• Phantom flashbulbs – subjects often replaced initial memory with
another, TV-based memory.
♦
21% said that they initially learned of event from the TV.
After 2.5 years, 45% said that they learned of event from the TV.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Time Course of Memories for 9/11 Attacks 361
Talarico: Time Course of an FBM
Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb
memories. Psychological Science, 14, 455-461.
• Studied memories for the 9/11 attack on WTC.
• On 9/12/01, 54 Duke students wrote down their memories of how they
first heard of the 9/11 attack. They also wrote down a recent everyday
memory, e.g., going to a sporting event.
• The study compared 9/11 memories to everyday memories after
varying delays.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16 Graphs
Showing Decrease in Accuracy but not Decrease in Certainty for FBM 362
Goldstein Fig. 8.8. Talarico & Rubin (2003)
Number of details
correctly recalled for
everyday & flashbulb
memories as a function of
days after the event.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Confidence in the accuracy
of everyday & flashbulb
memories as a function of
days after the event.
Summary of Results Depicted in these Graphs (Redundant) 363
Talarico Fig 1a
Figure 1 from Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb
memories. Psychological Science, 14, 455-461.
• Number of correct details diminishes over time for both flashbulb and
everyday memories.
• Belief in the accuracy of memories diminishes over time for everyday
memories but remains high for FBM's.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Similar Result for O. J. Simpson Murder Trial 364
Memory for the O. J. Simpson Murder Trial:
15 & 32 Months After the Trial
• Subjects were randomly assigned
to a 2nd interview 15 or 32
months after the 1st interview.
• Subjects were asked to recall
what they thought at the 1st
interview.
45
40
Percentage of Sample
Subjects were interviewed 3 days
after the verdict in the O. J. Simpson
murder trial. Answered questions
about their thoughts on the trial,
e.g., how did you learn of the
verdict? how do you feel about
the verdict?
Schmolck, H., Buffalo, E. A., & Squire, L. R. (2000). Memory for distortions develop over time:
Recollections of the O. J. Simpson trial verdict after 15 and 32 months. Psychological Science,
11, 39-45.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
15
32
"Don't Remember”
Responses
15
32
Very Inaccurate
Responses
• Over time, there are fewer "don't remember" responses, and more
very inaccurate memories (Schmolck et al., 2000).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Why Confidence Remains High While Accuracy Diminishes Over Time 365
Why do people have high confidence in the accuracy
of FBM's even though the accuracy declines?
• People keep thinking about flashbulb memories.
♦
Increases strength of memory.
♦
Supports the narrative rehearsal hypothesis.
• People add information that helps them make sense out of
the memory, but the added information may not be accurate.
♦
The added information makes the memory more meaningful.
♦
Memory is constructive or reconstructive.
• Source misattribution.
♦
I.e., people learn something after an event but they come to believe
that they learned it while experiencing the event.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Return to Question: Is there a Special Mechanism for FBM's? 366
Do Flashbulb Memories (FBM’s) Involve
Special Cognitive Mechanisms?
Bottom line: No convincing evidence that FBM's involve
special mechanisms, although there are ways in which they
tend to be unusual.
♦
Encoding is often associated with stronger emotion,
more vivid detail, events are more personally important.
♦
It is likely that FBM’s are retrieved multiple times.
These retrievals lead to strengthened associations with other facts and
ideas. Consolidation and reconstruction of memory over time.
♦
Over time, people have higher confidence in the accuracy of FBM's
than everyday memories from the same time period.
FBM's appear more vivid and more clear at time of retrieval.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
A Schema for "Office Rooms" 367
Brewer & Treyens (1981) :
A Schema for "Office Room"
Schemas: Representations of
typical characteristics of objects,
situations or events.
Subject asked to wait in this office
room for about 30 seconds prior to
start of experiment. Subject does
not know that memory will be
tested for this room.
• Subject is moved to another room.
• Recall test – What do you remember about the waiting room?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Predictions & Findings of "Office Room" Experiment 368
Brewer & Treyens (1981):
A Schema for "Office Room"
Predictions:
Memory will be biased ....
(a) .... towards recall of schemaconsistent information;
(b) .... and against recall of schemainconsistent information
Findings:
Correct recall:
Desk, chairs, shelves
Intrusion Errors: Books on shelves
Schema consistent
Omission Errors: Skull, small doll
Schema inconsistent
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Advantages & Disadvantages of Schematic Influences on Memory 369
Schemas and Scripts Influence Memory
• Memory can include information not actually experienced but inferred
because it is expected and consistent with the schema
• "Scripts" are like schemas except that a script is a typical
sequence of events or actions.
♦
We have scripts for how to pay for our purchases in a check out line
at the market.
♦
We have scripts for how to greet a respected visitor to our home.
• Memory is constructive.
♦
The constructive property of memory is generally advantageous,
but it can lead to errors or “false memories”
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Roediger/McDermott/Deese Experiment – Same as Coglab 370
False Memory 1
Downloaded with permission from Thomas Pusateri’s website,
http://iea.fau.edu/pusateri/home/index.htm, 29 December 2004.
♦
The version of the demonstration shown here slightly modifies the original.
Demonstration of the Deese (1959), Roediger & McDermott (1995)
false memory paradigm.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Instructions for the Experiment 371
Roediger/McDermott/Deese Paradigm
• You will see a list of 19 words, one at a time.
• Do whatever you can to remember as many words
as you can.
• At the end of the list, write down as many of the words
as you can recall.
• Note to Instructor: The following stimulus slides are self timed
(1.8 seconds/slide), so just let them run. You don’t have to
advance the slides.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Start of the Stimulus Sequence 372
BED
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373
CLOCK
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374
DREAM
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375
NIGHT
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376
TURN
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377
MATTRESS
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378
SNOOZE
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379
NOD
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380
TIRED
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381
NIGHT
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382
STOVE
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383
INSOMNIA
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384
REST
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385
TOSS
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386
NIGHT
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387
ALARM
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388
NAP
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389
SNORE
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390
PILLOW
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391
************************************************
WRITE DOWN THE WORDS YOU SAW
************************************************
Actually you can skip this step, but this is what subjects
are asked to do.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Correct List of Words & Types of Erors 392
Here are the stimulus words in the presented order:
BED, CLOCK, DREAM, NIGHT, TURN,
MATTRESS, SNOOZE, NOD, TIRED, NIGHT,
STOVE, INSOMNIA, REST, TOSS, NIGHT,
ALARM, NAP, SNORE, PILLOW
Types of Memory Errors
• Intrusion errors: Words not on the list that you thought were there.
o
Common intrusion error:
Sleep related words like: SLEEP, DROWSY or FATIGUE
• Omission errors: Words on the list that you didn't recall.
o
Common omission error:
Non-sleep related word like: STOVE
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Interpretation of Experimental Results 393
Interpretation of Results
for the Roediger/McDermott/Deese Paradigm
Almost all of the words are sleep-related ("going to sleep" schema).
The Roediger/McDermott/Deese paradigm is designed to cause
subjects to make two kinds of errors:
(a) Schema-consistent intrusion errors.
♦
In the preceding example, the schema was something like
"objects or actions that are related to sleeping."
♦
For this example, schema-consistent intrusion errors would be words like:
"sleep", "drowsy", "pajamas", etc.
(b) Schema-inconsistent omission errors.
♦
The word STOVE was the only non-sleep related word in the list.
Subjects are more likely to omit STOVE than other words.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Advantages & Disadvantages of Memory Schemas 394
Advantages & Disadvantages of Constructive Memory
Advantages
• Allows us to fill in the gaps in our knowledge.
♦
Speeds up how quickly we can interpret or respond to a situation.
♦
Helps create a meaningful narrative about our life experiences.
• In general, cognition is inferential.
♦
The schematic nature of memory –
similar to Helmholtz’s “unconscious inference”.
• Schemas help organize experiences into "chunks."
Disadvantages
• Sometimes we make errors without realizing it.
• Sometimes our memories are based on expectations and
not on the actual experience.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Intro to Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Testimony 395
Eyewitness Testimony
• Basic source of evidence in the Anglo-American legal system.
• Historically more trusted than circumstantial evidence.
• Of 248 people who were exonerated through the work
of the Innocence Project, 75% were convicted on eyewitness testimony
(Quinlivan et al., 2009; Scheck et al., 2000).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Sources of Error in Eyewitness Testimony 396
Sources of Error in Eyewitness Testimony
• Intrinsic fallability of memory
• Post-event suggestions by interested parties, esp. police.
♦
Misleading post-event information (MPI) can bias memory
♦
Misinformation effect (later in this lecture)
• Misleading familiarity
• Cross-racial identification
• Line ups versus show ups.
♦
Line up: Did one of these men do it? (People tend to respond as if the
question is, who in this group looks the most like the person you saw?)
♦
Sequential show up: Did Man A do it? Did Man B do it? etc.
(Surprisingly less biased)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Misinformation Effect 397
Source Monitoring & Source Misattribution
• Source monitoring - retaining a memory for the source of information
in memory.
• Source misattribution - attributing a memory to one source when the
actual source was something else.
♦
Example: My friends tell me about a large building fire that they
witnessed. Years later I believe that I witnessed this fire along with my
friends.
• Source misattribution can cause errors in eyewitness
testimony.
♦
♦
A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of a
crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person commit
the crime).
Example: Donald Thompson, a memory researcher.
While watching Donald Thompson on TV, a woman who was attacked in
her home. Later she identified him as the attacker.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Experimental Study of Source Misattribution 398
Source Misattribution is One Cause
of Erroneous Eyewitness Memory
• A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of
a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person
commit the crime).
♦
Example: Donald Thompson, a memory researcher.
While watching Donald Thompson on TV, a woman who was attacked in
her home. Later she identified him as the attacker.
• Remember/Know Distinction:
♦
Feeling of familiarity ≠ Recollection
but people may say that they "remember" someone when they feel
familiar.
• Tomorrow: Continue discussing source monitoring errors and
eyewitness memory.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Experimental Study of Source Misattribution 399
Next:
Lecture 07-3
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
400
Source Monitoring & Eyewitness Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/11/2016: Lecture 07-3
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• Memory is constructive
• Eyewitness memory
• Source monitoring and source monitoring errors
• Errors in eyewitness memory
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Advantages & Disadvantages of Constructive Memory
402
Constructive Memory
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Helps to create a meaningful narrative
about our life experiences.
• Sometimes our memories are based on
expectations and not on the actual
experience.
• Allows us to fill in the gaps in our
knowledge.
• Speeds up how quickly we can interpret
or respond to a situation.
• Schemas help organize experiences into • Sometimes we make errors without
"chunks" that are easier to manipulate in
realizing it.
working memory, and easier to associate
with similar experiences.
Intro to Eyewitness Testimony
Eyewitness Testimony
• Basic source of evidence in the Anglo-American legal system.
• Historically more trusted than circumstantial evidence.
• Of 341 people who were exonerated by DNA evidence as of 2012,
eyewitness testimony played a role in 75% of the original convictions.
(Quinlivan et al., 2009; Scheck et al., 2000).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Sources of Error in Eyewitness Testimony
404
Sources of Error in Eyewitness Memory
• Intrinsic fallability of memory
• Misleading familiarity
• Cross-racial identification
• Feedback can reinforce memory errors
• Line ups versus show ups.
♦
Line up: Did one of these men do it?
(People tend to respond as if the question is, who in this group
looks the most like the person you saw?)
♦
Sequential show up: Did Man A do it? Did Man B do it? etc.
(Surprisingly less biased)
• Post-event suggestions by interested parties, esp. police.
♦
Misleading post-event information (MPI) can bias memory
♦
Misinformation effect
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Source Monitoring & Source Misattribution
405
Source Monitoring & Source Misattribution
• Source monitoring - retaining a memory for the source of information
in memory.
• Source misattribution - attributing a memory to one source when the
actual source was something else.
♦
Example: My friends tell me about a large building fire that they
witnessed. Years later I believe that I witnessed this fire along with my
friends.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Source Misattribution & Errors in Eyewitness Memory
406
Source Misattribution is One Cause
of Erroneous Eyewitness Memory
• Source misattribution can cause errors in eyewitness testimony.
♦
A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator
of a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person
commit the crime).
♦
Example: A woman was attacked in her home shortly after watching
a TV show in which a psychologist, David Thompson, was interviewed.
Later she identified David Thompson as the attacker.
(He had an alibi, the interview on the TV show.)
• Remember/Know Distinction:
♦
Feeling of familiarity ≠ Recollection
but people may say that they "remember" Mr. X when Mr. X is familiar.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Ross et al. Experimental Study of Source Misattribution
407
Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Identification
See Figure 8.17 in Goldstein
Robber Not Present
Try to pick robber
from photospread;
male teacher present
Experimental
View male teacher
reading to students
Both Conditions
View female
teacher getting
robbed by a man.
Robber Present
Control
View female
teacher reading to
students
Try to pick robber
from photospread;
male teacher present
Ross, D. F., Ceci, S. J., Dunning, D., & Toglia, M. P. (1994). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity:
When a witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 918-930.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Same Slide with Emphasis Rectangles
408
Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Identification
See Figure 8.17 in Goldstein
Robber Not Present
Try to pick robber
from photospread;
male teacher present
Experimental
View male teacher
reading to students
Both Conditions
View female
teacher getting
robbed by a man.
Robber Present
Control
View female
teacher reading to
students
Try to pick robber
from photospread;
male teacher present
Ross, D. F., Ceci, S. J., Dunning, D., & Toglia, M. P. (1994). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a
witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 918-930.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results of This Study
409
Results of Ross et al. (1994)
Figure 8.20: Ross et. al. (1994)
• 60% id male teacher
when robber not
in photospread.
20% id teacher in
control group.
♦
10% id teacher in
control group.
• Source misattributions
can cause mistaken
identifications.
60
% Identification
of Male Teacher
• 18% id male teacher
when robber in
photospread.
% Identification
of Male Teacher
♦
40
20
0
E
C
Robber not in
photospread
60
40
20
0
E
C
Robber in
photospread
E = Experimental Condition = View male teacher at stage 1
C = Control Condition = View female teacher at stage 1
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Misinformation Effect
410
Lineups versus Show-Ups – What Are They?
• Classic showup: Police show only one person to a witness.
Question: "Is he the man you saw?"
• Classic lineup: Police show 7 people to the witness:
Question: "Do you see the perpetrator in the line up?"
• Improved showup = sequential showup: Police tell the witness,
"We're going to show you a series of men (of unstated length).
Stop me when you see the perpetrator."
• Contrary to most people's expectations, show ups are more accurate
than line ups. Why are showups more accurate than lineups?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Why Lineups & Showups Differ as Cognitive Tasks
411
Cognitive Differences Between Lineups and Showups
• Classic showup:
♦
Witness asks himself/herself: "Did I see this person do the crime?"
• Classic lineup:
♦
Witness assumes that the perpetrator is in the lineup.
Mistake!
♦
Witness asks himself/herself:
"Which of these men looks the most like the person that I saw?"
Mistake!
• Sequential presentation = sequential showup
(Goldstein refers to this a sequential presentation)
♦
With each person, the witness asks himself/herself:
"Am I sure that this is the person who I saw do the crime?"
• Lindsey & Wells (1985) found that the sequential showup greatly reduced
false id when the perpetrator was not present (43% vs 17%)
• Sequential showups slightly reduced the rate of true id when perpetrator is
present.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Misinformation Effect
412
Misinformation Effect
MPI = Misleading Postevent Information
Overview of the Misinformation Effect
• Subject sees a video, or a slide sequence, or reads a story.
I'll call this "the video." The video usually depicts a crime.
• After seeing the video, the subject is asked questions about
it. For some subjects, the questions contain misinformation
(MPI or false assumptions).
• Subjects receive a memory test. A misinformation effect is
found if subjects who heard the misleading questions
remember the video in a way that is consistent with the
question and not the video.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Introduce Loftus & Palmer - Car Crash
413
MPI: Leading Questions Can Produce Memory Biases
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
• Subjects see film of an
auto accident.
• Questions contained
alternative descriptions
of the accident.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results: Effect of the Biased Questions
414
Leading Question Can Produce Memory Biases
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Verb
Estimated Speed
smashed
40.8
collided
39.3
bumped
38.1
hit
34.0
contacted
31.8
Loftus & Palmer Result for Broken Glass
415
Leading Questions Can Produce False Inferences
• One week later, subjects were asked: Did you see any broken glass?
Actually, there was no broken glass in the film.
Yes
No
"smashed"
32
68
"hit"
14
86
control*
12
88
* The control group were not asked about the speed of the car
(no misinformation; no correct information).
UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '12
Misinformation Effect - Loftus, Miller & Burns
416
Misinformation Effect:
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
Subjects watch slides that show
a traffic accident: Car A runs a
stop sign and hits Car B.
• Consistent Info Condition:
How fast was Car A going
when it went past the stop sign?
• Inconsistent Info Condition:
How fast was Car A going
when it went past the yield sign?
• Memory test:
Did Car A go past a stop sign or a yield sign?
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results of Loftus, Miller & Burns Experiment
417
% Correct Identification
of the Stop Sign
60
Consistent Info
40
Neutral Info
Inconsistent Info
Misinformation
Effect
0
20
Percent Correct
80
100
Results of Loftus, Miller & Burns (1978)
0 20
1
min. day
2
days
1
week
Retention Interval
• A misinformation effect was found (it gets larger over time)
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Chan: Recalling an Event Increases Susceptibility to Misinformation
418
Recalling an Event Increases
Susceptibility to Misinformation Effects
Chan, J. C. K., Thomas, A. K., & Bulevich, J. B. (2009). Recalling a witnessed event increases eyewitness
suggestibility. Psychological Science, 20, 66–73.
• Subjects view tape of "24" TV program.
• Misinformation: A terrorist knocks out flight attendant with an injection of a
drug, but the misinformation assumes that a chloroform pad was used.
• Cued recall test increases tendency to recall misinformation.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Feedback Can Increase Confidence in Erroneous Memories
419
Feedback Can Increase Confidence in Erroneous Memories
• Subjects viewed video of crime.
• Subjects shown a photo array that
did not contain the perpetrator of
the crime.
• All subjects picked someone from
the photo array. (!!!)
• Confirming Feedback Condition:
"Good, you identified the suspect."
• No Feedback Condition
• Disconfirming Feedback Condition:
"Actually the suspect was number
__."
• Later when asked how confident they
were in their identifications, subjects
were most confident with confirming
feedback.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
APA Recommendations for Use of Eyewitness Memory in Courts
420
Recommendations for Improving Eyewitness Memory
• Use a sequential showup
(Goldstein would call it a sequential presentation).
• In a showup, use non-suspects who are similar to a suspect.
• Inform witness that the perpetrator may not be in a showup.
• Administrator of showup should not know who is the suspect.
• Get confidence rating immediately after the initial identification.
Avoid giving feedback to the witness after the lineup
• Use cognitive interview techniques; do not prompt the witness
with leading questions.
♦
See Wikipedia article on cognitive interview techniques:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_interview
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Memory Accuracy & Memory Errors - END
421
Memory Accuracy & Memory Errors
• Psychologists are not claiming that memories are mostly errors.
• We need to be aware that errors do occur, especially in situations
where beliefs about memory accuracy have great practical
importance.
• In general, people are overconfident in the accuracy of their memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
END - or Continue to Outline of Recovered Memories Topic
422
Wednesday, May 11, 2016: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
423
Next:
Lecture 07-4
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
424
1. Unlearning a phobia by retrieval + drug
2. Recovered memories
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology
Instructor: John Miyamoto
05/12/2016: Lecture 07-4
Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros
aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.
Outline
• Video from the 2016 PBS program, Nova.
Episode: "Memory Hackers".
Video has excellent examples of:
♦
Use of Nader's fear deconditioning method to treat spider phobia.
♦
Implanting a false memory in an unsuspecting person.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘16
Nader/Brunet Method for Deconditioning a Chronic Fear Response 426
Nader/Brunet Method for Deconditioning
a Chronic Fear Response
• Patient encounters a memory cue for a memory M that produces
a problematic fear response.
♦
E.g., listening to a taped description of the patient's traumatic experience.
• After retrieving the fear response, the patient receives propranolol,
a drug that blocks the fear response.
• Later the fear response is no longer associated with the memory M
to which it was previously linked.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Proposed Explanation: The propranolol prevents the patient from
reconsolidating the association between the memory M and the fear
response. Therefore this association is lost; future retrievals of the
memory will not trigger the emotional response.
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
URL for the Nova Video, the "Memory Hackers" 427
PBS NOVA- MEMORY HACKERS, 2016
• <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xS_OiKvoqbo>
• Deconditioning spider phobia: 30:00 to 36:40.
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Retrieval and Reconsolidation 428
Retrieval and Reconsolidation
1. Memories are malleable at time of retrieval.
Abbreviated MMTR
2. Retrievals an be cued by an external stimulus, e.g., a spider, but
also by internal thoughts, e.g., worrying over a personal problem
or trying to understand a science problem.
3. MMTR can be manipulated to the benefit of a patient.
○
E.g., deconditioning a phobia.
4. Malleability of memories affects our memories of personal events
if we continue to think about them.
5. Malleability of memories affects our understanding of scientific
domains if we build that understanding by following chains of
inference that depend on many retrievals.
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
What Are Recovered Memories? 429
What Are Recovered Memories?
• Definition: A recovered memory is a memory that has
two characteristics:
♦
The experiences that are remembered are shocking or traumatic.
♦
There was an extended period in the individual's life when he or she
did not remember the experiences that are eventually "recovered."
abuse
no memory
recovered
memory
Now
Time
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Theory of Recovered Memory Has Important Consequences
430
Theory of Recovered Memory Has Important Consequences
• Claims of recovered memories have huge consequences for:
... the person who experiences the recovered memory; and
... persons accused of abuse based on recovered memories.
○
Consequences are social, psychological, and legal.
• If certain kinds of psychological therapy can produce
false recovered memories, then, as psychologists,
we are obligated to learn about this and prevent it.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Example of a False Recovered Memory of Sexual Abuse
431
Sometimes Recovered Memories Are Not True Memories
• B. R. (Missouri, 1992) remembered under therapy that her father,
a clergyman, had repeatedly raped her between ages of 7 – 14
(with her mother's help). She remembered being pregnant twice,
each pregnancy ending in an abortion.
• Father had to resign his post as clergyman.
• Later, medical examination showed that she has never been
pregnant and was in fact still a virgin at age 22.
• The therapist who guided the "recovery" of these memories was sued
by B. R. and settled for $1 million in 1996.
• Conclusion: It is not true that recovered memories are
always true memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Example of Verified Forgetting of Early Trauma
432
Some Traumas Can Be Forgotten
• Williams (1994) interviewed
129 women who had been
treated 17 years earlier at a
sexual abuse clinic.
♦
38% had no memory of the
incident for which they had
been admitted.
♦
12% had no memory of any
sexual abuse at any time.
(12%
% with No Recall of Incident
that Brought Them to Clinic
15 women)
• Conclusion: It is probably
not true that recovered
memories are always
false memories.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Loftus & Pickrell (1995): Imagining Can Produce False Memories
433
Imagining Can Produce False Memories
Loftus, E.F. & Pickrell, J.E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 720-725.
• Subjects recruited in pairs: UW student + parent or sibling.
• Working with parent or sibling, the experimenters prepare a booklet
containing 3 true events and 1 plausible fabricated event.
♦
E.g., fabricated event = subject got lost in a shopping mall, crying,
aid and comfort by an elderly woman and, finally, reunion with the family.
• Procedure:
♦
Subject reads the description of each event.
♦
Subject asked to remember the event.
♦
Subject writes "I do not remember this" if they do not recall the event.
♦
Subjects are repeatedly encouraged to "remember" the fabricated event.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Results of Loftus & Pickrell
434
Result for Loftus & Pickrell (1995)
• About 25% of subjects “remember” the fabricated event after
2 sessions of trying to recall the event.
• Conclusion: It is possible to convince people that
fabricated childhood events did occur.
♦
Notice analogy to therapist attempting to "recover" memories of
childhood abuse.
♦
Note that the anti-recovered memory advocates do not claim that
everyone can be made to believe in false memories. They only want
to show that this can sometimes occur.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
PBS Nova, the "Memory Hackers" - Inducing a False Memory
435
PBS NOVA- MEMORY HACKERS, 2016
• <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xS_OiKvoqbo>
• 38:40 - 42:30: Demonstration that false memory can be implanted.
○
○
Young woman is gradually convinced that at age 14 she got into a dispute with
someone in a public place, and she was arrested by the police [not true].
Method is based on suggestion and retrievals of related memories
(building up the parts of the memory)
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '16
436
What Is the Recipe for Creating
a False Autobiographical Memory?
• Repeatedly retrieve a specific memory M.
♦
If the subject does not remember anything like M, then start by remembering
common details that will be part of the memory of M.
• At each retrieval, encourage the subject to modify the memory
in some way, i.e., ask leading questions or suggest abusive
possibilities may have occurred.
• Encourage the subject to imagine the context of the abuse
and the occurrence of abuse.
• Provide positive feedback whenever the subject makes a statement
that suggests that abuse has occurred.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
Are There Verifiable Examples of Recovered Memories?
437
Conclusions Regarding Recovered Memories
• There is reason to believe that recovery of true traumatic memories
has sometimes occurred.
• There is evidence that false memories can be created.
• There is evidence that some therapists have unintentionally
“helped” patients create false memories of traumatic events.
• The method for creating a false memory M involves repeatedly
imagining aspects or components of M; retrieving previous
imaginings of M; gradually modifying beliefs that are linked to M.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
APA Recommendations re Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse - END
438
APA Panel Recommendations
APA = American Psychological Association
• The controversy over adult recollections should not obscure the fact
that child sexual abuse is a complex and pervasive problem.
• Most people who were sexually abused as children remember
all or part of what happened to them.
• It is possible for memories of abuse that have been forgotten
for a long time to be remembered.
• It is possible to construct convincing pseudomemories
(false memories) for events that never occurred.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '16
END
439
End of Lectures:
04-1 to 07-4
+ Section Slides
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15
440