Download Policy Areas

A.P. GOVERNMENT
Public Policy
Studying for this part of the exam is very difficult because public policy is such a vast
and varied topic. The best approach at this point is to focus on the following: (1) how an
issue gets on the agenda (2) how issues of concern become policies (3) how policies are
matters for political debate (4) examples of landmark legislation
I.
Agenda Setting—“The agenda” refers to the issues about which the government
is paying attention and attempting to make policy
Consider who sets the agenda and how:
 Members of Congress certainly have agenda goals (often related to their
constituents’ needs or the interest groups who back them)
 The President is an agenda setter
 Interest Groups (e.g., environmental groups putting clean energy on the
agenda; NRA challenging gun laws)
 Crises often bring new things to the agenda (consider the impact of 9-11
or the Newtown massacre)
 Individual citizens can act as ‘policy entrepreneurs’ to get something on
the agenda (e.g., Ralph Nader’s book Safe at Any Speed & Rachel
Carson’s Silent Spring put 2 issues, car safety and use of pesticides, on the
agenda)
 Political parties—see issues as possible ‘winners’ in elections (e.g., the
debt, gay marriage, abortion)
 The Media—coverage of issues (e.g., genocide in Sudan) puts things in
public’s mind and perhaps on the mind of politicians; SHOWS ROLE OF
MEDIA = agenda setter
Policy Areas:
II.
Economic Policy:
A. General Points:
1. U.S. has a Mixed Economy—elements of capitalism (privately owned means
of production, individuals/corporations get profits) with some government
regulation
2. One of biggest political issues Government Regulations and impact of economy
on voters’ perceptions
a. Regulations show the connection between bureaucracy and policy
Examples: Securities Exchange Commission—regulates stock fraud;
Labor practices regulated by minimum wage, labor laws; Occupational
Health and Safety Administration—regulates working conditions
b. State of economy affects voters evaluation of president’s job;
‘pocketbook voting’—if things going well, incumbent does well; if
economy isn’t doing well, incumbent may be hurt
c. The political parties approach the economy differently
Democrats focus on employment; Republicans focus on inflation; See this
impact their appeal to constituents—Democrats traditionally appeal to
working class, poor, minorities, union members; Republicans appeal to
professionals and business people; 2004 voters who were satisfied with the
economy voted 4-1 in favor of Bush, those dissatisfied with economy 4-1
in favor of Kerry; saw same trends in 2008 & 2012 (Obama and focus on
extending unemployment insurance; Romney—cut taxes)
d. Many bureaucratic agencies are important, especially Federal Reserve
Board, Council of Economic Advisors, Treasury Department; Within
Congress several committees matter on economic policy
B. Types of economic policymaking (DEFINITELY SHOULD KNOW THESE)
1. Monetary Policy: manipulation of the supply of money and credit in
private hands (focus on things like interest rate and inflation)
Too much cash in circulation causes inflation (increase in price of
goods)
The Federal Reserve Board = main agency when it comes to monetary
policy (see bureaucratic agency list)
FED sets the ‘federal funds rate’ which is the interest banks charge for
overnight loans ; buys or sells bonds from banks which determines
whether banks have more or less money to lend out; more to lend,
borrowing is cheaper
**interest rates, inflation, etc. all affected by FED
**Chair of the FRB has more power over the economy than anyone
(so many interest groups try to influence him)
2. Fiscal Policy: how the federal budget (taxing, spending, and
borrowing) affect the economy
The Federal Reserve Board is responsible for monetary policy, Congress
and the President for fiscal policy
Constitutionally—Congress got most of power over fiscal policy (coin
money, regulate trade, appropriate funds, etc); but President has gained
power here (must run on their economic record, so are concerned about
policy); consider the role each plays in the budget process (this is also an
area that voters can more easily see and understand in their daily lives);
THIS IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE TWO BRANCHES
Each party has own view about how to handle fiscal policy (Democrats
revere Roosevelt, Republicans revere Reagan)
Two competing theories: Keynesian Theory vs. Supply Side
Economics
Keynesian argues that government spending can help deal with ups and
downs in the economy; spend more in bad times and less in good (focused
on demand); this is where a stimulus package might come into play—in
the 2008 recession, Obama and others suggested needed GOVERNMENT
spending to stimulate the economy (passed a stimulus package)
Supply Side (touted by Reagan)—job of government is to stimulate
supply of goods, not demand for them; big government” is bad for the
economy (makes up too much of the GDP); Government shouldn’t tax,
spend, or regulate too much
CUT TAXES IS KEY (even if you cause deficits); some argue the
‘trickle down theory’—if the wealthy have more money to spend,
the benefits trickle down to lower income people
3. Conclusions:
**Presidential power over the economy is limited BUT voters still
consider the state of the economy when voting (and blame or credit those
in power)
**Law mandates so much spending already (mandatory/uncontrollable
spending) that it’s hard to change much in the budget (or affect spending
much)
**biggest restraint on the government’s control of the economy is the
capitalist system; Private Sector is MUCH larger than public sector SO
consumers and businesses make the most decisions that affect the
economy; US doesn’t support a socialist system (with more govt control)
**impact of the World Economy makes U.S. politicians’ attempt to
control our economy even more difficult
C.
Interest Groups & Economic Policy
Economic Interest Groups:
Those dealing with economic issues outnumber others; business,
consumers, and labor are 3 main groups when it comes to economic policy
Business lobbyists are most well-organized and well-funded; usually focus
on having few regulations and low business related taxes
Government also provides protections and incentives—copyright, patent,
Small Business Administration (advises, counsels, loans money), fund
research, tax incentives for certain activities (e.g., a business might get a
tax break for ‘going green’)
Consumer Groups: focus on protecting the interest of consumers (often
hard to get many consumers to contribute to their efforts because of the
free rider problem)
First policy to protect consumers was the U.S. Food and Drug Act 1906;
now the FDA has regulatory powers over many aspects of manufacture
and sale of food and drugs (safety, effectiveness, etc)
60s’ and 70’s flood of consumer protection laws; 1972 Consumer Product
Safety Commission created with powers to ban unsafe products
Federal Trade Commission—deals with truth in advertising (as well as
regulating trade practices); handles Consumer Credit Protection Act (must
get statement with interest must pay when borrow $)
Recently created Consumer Finance Protection Bureau (as a result of some
of the activities that contributed to the economic downturn)—shows how
Executive Branch can address consumer concerns about economy
Labor—until 1914 the federal government helped destroy, rather than
protect labor unions
New Deal brings greater support for labor movement with National Labor
Relations Act (Wagner Act) which guarantees right to collective
bargaining and union representatives involved in negotiating contracts
Post WWII policy tilts away from supporting labor and prohibiting unfair
acts by unions (Taft-Hartley Act); president gets power to halt strikes with
a court injunction and allows for right-to-work laws
Success of unions—right to unemployment compensation; minimum wage
(still an issue that divides the parties)
**unions have declined in membership and political power; no longer
do union members vote solidly Democratic, but are more evenly split;
hard to unionize some workers and some companies (like Walmart)
primarily hire non-union
We’ve seen recent instances of State governments trying to limit the
power of unions
Current Issues:
Debate over focus on debt vs. focus on unemployment; some Democrats
argue need to focus on increasing employment, even if that means
government spends money BUT that perspective is not currently popular.
The politics surrounding the fiscal cliff and the sequester demonstrate how
the President and Congress focus on aspects of economic policy
(particularly spending) and the 2 parties approach it differently
ADDITIONAL TERMS:
Unemployment: those seeking work who can’t find it (not just those who
aren’t working)
Inflation: the rise in prices for consumer goods (use consumer price index
which measures change in cost of buying a fixed basket of goods and
services); not a perfect measure
Laissez-faire—theory that government should not mess with the economy;
let market forces dictate what happens
III.
Tax Policy:
A. Income vs. wealth
Income= basically your paycheck; how much you earn
1. U.S. high per capita income (not the highest), but also among the
biggest extremes in income distribution (bigger gaps between rich and
poor than other western countries)
2. Disparity has grown since 1960--1960 richest 5th of population made
42% of all income, 2009 50% for top fifth, 3.4% for bottom; Average
income of top earners has gone up dramatically over last 10 years, while
that of lowest earners has remained stagnant or gone down
3. Income distribution not debated in policy arena BUT used as a charge
against policies (now see talk of ‘class warfare’)
Wealth—total value of assets one owns (stocks, bonds, houses, etc) Wealth is
more unevenly distributed (1/3 wealth held by top 1%; 1/3 by next 9%;
1/3 by remaining 90%)
**Significance to politics—greater polarization in politics, one issue is divided
over ‘who gets what’ (liberals and conservatives answer this differently)—
concerns about redistribution of wealth
B. How does policy affect income? TAXES and EXPENDITURES
Taxes:
3 types of taxes:
1. progressive—takes higher percent from people with larger incomes
2. regressive—takes higher percent from those at lower income levels
3. proportional—takes same percent from everyone
Some taxes are regressive; like sales tax, which seems proportional, but since
poor spend more on necessities, if they are subject to taxes, the poor pay higher
percent of income in taxes than rich
FEDERAL taxes are primarily progressive; rich pay higher percent tax rate
IV. Social Welfare:
A. Social welfare policies=programs that provide some form of assistance to groups of
people; such policies often viewed negatively in public mind because erroneously
associated with going overwhelming to the poor; but most money under social welfare
policy goes towards programs that are universally available
1.key distinction: entitlement programs vs. means tested programs
a. Entitlement programs: government benefits that certain people are entitled to
regardless of need (“social insurance programs”—programs you or your employer
contributed to in the first place); Examples: Social Security and Medicare
(biggest); unemployment; **These programs are popular and politically difficult
to change
b. Means-Tested programs: provide benefits only to people with specific need;
particularly those under the poverty line; people have to qualify for them;
Examples: Medicaid (medical care for the very poor), food stamps, TANF, SSI,
CHIP ;**these are politically controversial and fodder for challenges; many
people feel these are not needed because poverty is a problem that should be
solved by the individual (because it’s caused by the individual—linked to
American individualism)
Less is spent on many means-tested programs than is cost in revenue from
deductions (for example, people who own homes can write off the interest
payments on their mortgages, so they don’t have to pay as much in taxes; but the
poor typically don’t own houses, so they don’t get that write-off; so $18 billion is
spent on food stamps vs. $67 billion it costs in government revenues for tax
breaks on mortgage interest)
Expenditures—money government spends on programs that benefit people
Example: transfer payments—benefits government gives directly to individuals
Like Social Security payments, food stamps, low interest school loans;
in-kind payments—not cash directly given to the person, but something like loans
or food stamps
4. Who’s poor?--Relative poverty—compared to other nations, poor in America
aren’t as bad off; Poverty line—used to count number of poor people; 2003
family of 3 fall below poverty if annual income is below $14,824/year;
Underestimates number of poor, because some drop in and out of poverty; most of
the poor actually work; Poverty is more common among African-Americans,
Hispanics, unmarried women, and inner-city residents; Poverty now most
common among women and children (rather than the elderly)= ‘feminization
of poverty’
B. WELFARE: (Public Assistance Programs)—different from social insurance
programs because based on need and funded by general tax revenues; established by
means test (must prove poor enough to qualify); much less support for these; most of
these programs are established by federal law, administered through the states, funded by
state and federal governments (SO COOPERATIVE & FISCAL FEDERALISM); cost
much less than social insurance programs (are discretionary spending & can be cut in
the budget; all of these programs make up 14% of the budget)
History:
AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) = welfare system before the 90’s;
federal government established uniform standards for states and subsidized their attempt
to help families with no breadwinner (states given ability to set own benefit levels);
Johnson’s War on Poverty boosted federal and state support for means-tested programs
(including food stamps)---programs collectively called welfare
**ISSUE divided Republicans and Democrats; over time many on both sides of the aisle
suggest welfare was failing—many argued it created a system of dependency and the way
it was set up discouraged people from getting off welfare
**became a media issue…depicted ‘deadbeat dads’ and ‘welfare queens-- people abusing
the system; very negative public perception (PUBLIC OPINION POLLS PRESSURE TO
REFORM); much of the media presentation focused on black welfare recipients creating
the impression that poverty was a black problem (reality most participants over time have
been white; they make up larger portion of overall population); Reagan persuaded
Congress to cut welfare benefits and lower the number of people receiving them
Welfare Reform:
Clinton in ’92 focused on reforming welfare in his campaign; Gingrich and Republican
majority from ’94 also supportive of change; Democrats opposed the bill, Clinton relied
heavily on Republicans
’96 Welfare Reform Bill: each state get fixed amount of money to run welfare
programs, people on welfare get benefits for 2 years, then must find work, lifetime
maximum of 5 years on welfare
***EXAMPLE OF DEVOLUTION—GIVING STATES FEDERAL MONEY TO
RUN WELFARE PROGRAMS; GIVES THEM DISCRETION***
Replaced AFDC cash payments (benefit went directly to family from federal
government) with Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
Assessing the reform: Worked in that it got people ‘off’ welfare; fewer people receiving
benefits; Those who leave welfare often have very low wages; lack access to childcare;
didn’t resolve issues of poverty or what to do with people who are in need(this kind of
discretionary spending is on the chopping block & many state budgets are strapped, so
cut these programs)
Current Public Assistance Programs:
 Medicaid—healthcare for poor already on welfare; based on need and funded by
general tax revenues
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
Food Stamps—assistance for purchasing food; in-kind benefit, qualify based on
need; new restrictions under Welfare Reform of ’96 limited benefits
Subsidized Housing—help for poor in paying for housing; typically rent vouchers
(in-kind benefit); cost of this program is much less than tax breaks for
homeowners cost the government in lost revenue (costs 3 times more than
subsidized housing)
Supplemental Security Income— benefits for disabled, blind, elderly (not
typically criticized)
C. Social Insurance Programs
Social Security:
History of the program: Prior to its enactment in 1935, there were no federal
provisions for the people who become or are born disabled, the elderly
who didn’t have savings; so many under these conditions lived in poverty Social
Security Act of 1935: created Social Security and programs for some of the poor;
post Depression became clear that poverty was a social problem that couldn’t just
be handled by charities; there needed to be a safety net
Current Concern—‘Baby Boomers’ will break the system
**most expensive policy in U.S. BUT popular because people contribute into it &
everyone receives it
How works: government taxes workers and employers; this is put into Social
Security Trust Fund (payroll tax--FICA on paycheck); The Trust Fund (where the
money is put)—currently more going in than coming out, but that will change;
money in trust fund can only be invested in US treasury bonds (not other stocks)
Put in a certain percent up to a maximum (so someone making $90,000 pays same
as Bill Gates); 2008 percent was 6.2% for both employee & employer (maximum
was around $102,000); Run entirely by federal government, they collect the
taxes & distribute the checks directly to the individuals
Problem: As # of workers to recipients decreases, cost to each worker will
increase; Average benefits increase over time to keep pace with cost of living
increase; By 2035 payouts will exceed income AND Congress will have to use
regular appropriations to pay beneficiaries; money that would have gone to
other programs will HAVE TO go to Social Security (especially if don’t raise
taxes)
Options: cut benefits to retirees or raise taxes on workers or raise retirement
age—NONE IS POLITICALLY POPULAR; **elderly Americans are wellorganized and politically active so hard to touch Social Security
Proposals: Bush and Republicans suggested take a portion of
contributions (2% of the 6.2% individual contribution) and put it in private
retirement funds—each individual would be given the chance to put that
money into a retirement fund (private account, stocks, bonds) =
‘privatization of social security’; some argue it would deplete the fund faster
than already happening
Was a Presidential commission to Strengthen Social Security—its warnings
about Social Security were serious and it suggested some privatization; Concern
with privatization is that diverting money from the Trust Fund would merely
bankrupt it earlier; concern also that if Stock Market falls then people would slip
into poverty
When Stock Market did slump, support for privatization waned
**As noted eslewhere—Social Security is a mandatory expenditure; people have
paid into the system and all who are eligible must get their checks
Medicare: another social insurance program
Post-WWII, Truman proposed a government-paid health insurance program; the
American Medial Association rallied against it; same thing happened to Kennedy
when he proposed it; ’64 election brought liberals to Congress (and Johnson had
support), so Medicare passed in ‘65
 medical assistance for retirees—pays for hospital/nursing home,
but recipient must pay portion of expenses (can apply for
government to pay if can’t afford)
 most of program funded by payroll taxes
 like Social Security, is popular
 2003—prescription drug program added (program began 2006), if
eligible for Medicare, eligible for drug program (no income, health
requirement); subsidizes (meaning government pays for) part of
the person’s prescription drug costs; the person must enroll to get
covered
 will run out of money without some changes, such changes are
politically difficult (Paul Ryan, Chair of House Budget Committee,
made recent proposals to make changes, which were blasted)
 new health care bill includes increase on Medicare taxes for people
making more than $200,000 for individual, $250,000 for joint
filers (.9% increase, making it 2.35%); will also allow taxation of
investment income of those in the same bracket (investment
income is money made from stocks, etc.—previously not taxed for
Medicare)
 Medicare ‘donut hole’ refers to a gap in the Medicare Part D
prescription drug program—plan covers $2,700 in prescription
drugs/year & then stops until costs reach $6,100 (after which plan
covers costs); so the person has to cover the costs between those
thresholds out of pocket; this creates a big burden on those with
fixed incomes

run by federal government; a single-payer healthcare system
for elderly (very popular among elderly so hard to get rid of);
the AARP is well-organized and mobilizes to oppose changes
Other Programs:
 Unemployment Insurance—1935 Social Security Act provided for
workers who lost job involuntarily; jointly administered by federal
and state; federal government collects payroll taxes, states set tax
rate, conditions of eligibility, benefit level; benefits are low & for
limited time
 State Child Health Insurance Program (SCHIP)—matching federal
funds to states for health insurance programs for kids; covers
uninsured kids in families too poor for Medicaid, but in need of
assistance; under Social Security Act, states have flexibility
w/broad guidelines from federal government (dual & fiscal
federalism); George W. Bush failed to reauthorize parts at end of
his term, Obama passed in reauthorization & expansion in 2009;
shows federalism
Compared to other Nations: Many other Western countries provide more benefits,
have larger social welfare systems BUT their taxes are much higher; In America these
problems often seen as individual responsibility/issue; Europeans see more as
government responsibility
**”The Welfare State” is a tag line that can be used to criticize social welfare
policies (also charges of ‘communism’)
Administration of Social Welfare Policy: How are these programs run? Who is
responsible?
 Some are examples of dual federalism—federal government pays for
some/all & states run (some states feel burdened when programs are
expanded because costs don’t cover those expansions)
 Social Security Administration—an independent government agency (so
not a cabinet position) administers Social Security, Supplemental Security
Income
 Department of Health and Human Services administers Medicare and
Medicaid
 Other cabinet departments have a hand in some programs
 Within Congress various committees would handle relevant legislation
(policy area committees, ways & means, budge, appropriations)
 Legislation often establishes a program or expands it (or sets levels of
eligibility) & then the bureaucracy creates ways of enforcing or carrying
out that legislation (through regulations)
 Because of the impact of these programs on the budget, all policymakers
are concerned about them (at the state-level, too)
D. Healthcare Policy—provides a good illustration of how an issue gets on the
agenda, gets debated and torn apart in Congress, gets pushed by the President and others,
gets reactions from the public, and becomes policy. It also illustrates issues associated
with implementing policy (p. 657-658 in textbook).
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) demonstrates
several important concepts: the role played by a president and Congress in passing
legislation, the difficulty a president faces when trying to ‘control’ his own party
(if Democrats weren’t fully on board, could it get passed), the backlash a
Congress can face (the Democratic losses in the 2010 midterm; the ‘town hall
meetings’ where voters yelled at members of Congress about their views on the
bill), the role of public opinion on policymaking (as parts became less popular,
the support in Congress waned), the role interest groups and the media play; the
challenges in Court used to check Congress and the President; states challenging
the federal mandate (issue of federalism)
Departments of Health and Human Services and Education are important—shows
role of burearcracy
V.
Foreign and National Security Policy
A. Tools of Foreign Policy—military, diplomatic, economic
B. Actors in foreign policy: Nations; International Organizations (e.g., U.N.,
NATO); multinational corporations, NGOs (non-governmental orgs)
U.N.—created 1945; members agree to renounce war and respect
human or economic reform; some doubt the effectiveness of the U.N.
(sometimes political debate about our inovlement)
C. The Policymakers
A. The President
1. Chief Diplomat—negotiates treaties (formal power)
2. Commander in Chief of armed forces (formal power)
3. Give official recognition to other countries (formal power)
4. policy made through formal mechanisms—treaties or executive
agreements Executive agreements don’t need presidential approval so
presidents often prefer (most not controversial, but Vietnam War ended
with one)
5. Advantages: Constitutional powers AND access to information, ability
to act with speed and in secrecy
B. Diplomats
1. State Department and Secretary of State—typically key foreign policy
advisor
a. U.S. Ambassadors engage in diplomacy
b. 30,000 State Department employees (includes appointees and members
of the Foreign Service)—help formulate and execute policy
c. Many presidents have relied more heavily on special advisors (like
National Security Advisor), rather than State Department
C. National Security Establishment
1. Defense Department (Pentagon) ; Secretary of Defense—main
civilian advisor to president on defense matters
2. Joint Chiefs of Staff—commanding officers of each of the armed
services; sometimes more conservative regarding use of force than
civilian advisors
3. National Security Council—formed in 1947 to coordinate foreign and
military policy; includes president, vice president, secretary of defense,
secretary of state; national security assistant manages NSC staff
4. Conflict w/in the establishment is common
--sometimes conflict over policy
--sometimes engage in actions that others aren’t aware of (1986
covert operations to sell missiles to Iran in return for help
in releasing hostages in Lebanon; money from the sale used
to fund anti-Communist rebels in Nicaragua
5. Central Intelligence Agency—coordinate information and intelligence
gathering
--provides information to help set policy
--use of espionage to collect information
--controversial when their tactics are used to gather information on
Americans (done during the Civil Rights Movement, Anti-War
Movement)
--involvement in other nations’ internal affairs—support coups in
certain countries; provide aid to certain groups
Now CIA must make Congressional committees aware of covert
operations (OVERSIGHT)
**criticized for failure to predict 9/11 and assertion that Iraq had
WMDs; recent criticism over some actions in Pakistan
6. National Security Administration—use of electronic eavesdropping to
gain information (came under fire with warrantless wiretaps used
by Bush administration); CIVIL LIBERTIES ISSUE
7. major re-organizations post-9/11
D. Congress—shares Constitutional authority over foreign and defense
policy
1. Declare war, raise and organize armed forces
2. appropriate funds for national security activities
3. ratify treaties and nominations
4. “power of the purse” and oversight
--carefully examine defense budget
--often able to challenge presidential action due to the powers
of Congress, but will initially defer to president (see in both
Bush’s actions after 9/11 and Obama’s actions with Bin-Laden,
Libya, etc.)
Current Foreign Policy Issues:
“War on Terrorism”—use of “defensive intervention” and less reliance on
alliances; New doctrine focuses on U.S. military preeminence and unilateral
action, if necessary-- U.S. invasion of Iraq follows this idea—
designed to
preempt future strikes. Bush administration’s use of preemptive warfare and
attempt to ‘spread democracy’ were a departure for traditional conservatives
(often called ‘neo-conservatives’)
Obama inherits 2 wars and focus on security; emphasizes re-building alliances;
economic concerns become important, which limits ability to engage in foreign
policy action; drop in support for wars shows how public opinion limits what
a president can do
U.S. response to Arab Spring and other ‘hot spots’ around the world is tied to
impact of our involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan—Is there public support for
more involvement? What do we do about places like Syria or North Korea? What
if it costs more money? How should we use drones? All of these current issues
are relevant to the politics of foreign policy. Public Opinion ties into how these
issues are addressed (or, at least, framed).
Defense Spending—influenced by budgetary limitations, ideology, political
concerns
A. Historically many argue that must choose between defense and domestic
spending (“guns or butter”)—but evidence of this is limited; these kinds of
spending seem to be independent of each other
B. Conservative ideology supports more defense spending
C. Liberal ideology typically focuses on domestic issues, but some shift after 9/
11 & War on Terrorism
D. Debates over proper level of spending; but U.S. still spend more than next 15
or 20 biggest spenders combined, has nuclear superiority, and dominant armed
forces
E. Where money goes
1. personnel—1.4 million on active duty and 860,000 national guard and
reserves; rely more heavily on national guard and reserves than in
the past
2. weapons
3. foreign aid
IV.
Education Policy
Education policy—typically left to states, but more federal involvement over the
years (good illustration of cooperative federalism)
Legislation:
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)—first significant federal
legislation—dealt with access, quality, etc.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1990)—covers much Special
Education law
No Child Left Behind major piece of legislation—requires states to show
Adequate Yearly Progress is student performance or can lose funds (example of
federalism and some say unfunded mandate);
Obama’s Race to the Top—funds tied to Recovery Act and states had to compete
and agree to certain requirements (teacher quality, assessments)
***All of this provides good examples of how the federal government pushes
policy goals onto states in an area formerly left to states by using funds (grants)
and mandates
V.
Environmental Policy:
Environmental Policymaking
U.S. political system affects how it’s carried out
--more adversarial than Europe (competing interests fight over
policy; get fight between industry and environmentalists)
--lots of bureaucracy
--impact of federalism
States must handle most compliance with programs,
increases adversarial nature
--Separation of Powers—anyone who has a concern about the
policy can gain access at some entry point (Courts, Congress); so
groups can push for legislation or sue if legislation isn’t enforced
--many varied interest groups interested in this policy area
(environmental groups, business groups, farm groups, unions,
consumer groups)---use of all methods to pursue policies
(lobbying, litigation, public pressure, campaign finance)
Endangered Species Act
Passed 1973—puts certain animals on the list and they
can’t be bought, sold, or killed and economic activity that
harms such species can be stopped (like building dams,
etc); protects habitats of animals; Federal regulations
establish whether activity interferes with species
Has public support, but criticized by those who must
comply with regulations
Clean Air Act 1970 put tough restrictions on automobile emissions; initially
public demand for it (show role of interest groups); INVOLVES FEDERAL
MANDATES
Involved requirements on cars producing pollution; also attempted to
require states to improve air quality through transportation rules and
emission standards; part of it would have put restrictions on use of cars
(including bans and gas rationing) **popular opposition to measures to
affect consumer use of cars failed SO deadlines for emissions standards
delayed by Congress (never came to fruition)
Fight over new kinds of cars also stalled policy—people didn’t like costs
or loss of horsepower; United Auto Workers Union concerned about
impact on U.S.auto industry
1990 Clean Air Act revised—new tougher auto emission controls, but pushed back
deadline for compliance; the Environmental Protection Agency makes and enforces
regulations (example of role of bureaucracy)
Compliance for getting rid of smog in worst cities set 20 years later
***PUBLIC SUPPORTS TOUGH ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS
AS LONG AS THEY DON’T HAVE TO PAY (either with cost of car or
loss of use of car)
So, cost-benefit analysis/impact affects support for policy
Costs low to public (like requiring environmental impact statement from
federal agency attempting to do something that will affect the human
environment), public will support; Costs high to public (like increase in
gas taxes to discourage driving), not likely to support
**Clean Air Acts allow for citizens to sue to enforce the law—that’s
unusual
**good example of Federalism—it’s a federal law BUT states must do
much of the work to carry it out
**the Act has evolved and been amended over the years
Recent Policy: (p. 661-667 in textbook might be helpful)
Bush proposed the Clean Skies Initiative (and the Clear Skies Act developed later but
never passed out of committee)—this was an attempt to alter requirements on industry for
limiting pollution (and allow some degree of market control over the limits); the act was
opposed by environmental groups (and somewhat supported by industry)
Obama—campaigned on promise that he would push for stronger environmental
legislation and make addressing climate change and alternative energy a priority; focus
on Healthcare and other issues early in his term limited his ability to address climate
change, so environmentalists have become critical of him (especially his willingness to
support nuclear energy, ‘clean coal,’ and off-shore oil drilling). His lack of support for
the Keystone Pipeline (from Canada thru U.S. to Gulf coast) was supported by
environmentalists (but criticized by Republicans and others); he may change is mind on
that