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Section 3 – Appendix A
Section 3
ICT Infrastructure
Purpose
The purpose of this section is to provide an insight into the basic form and type of
ICT infrastructure currently available. It is intended that managers may then use this
information when producing a workable networking and hardware policy for
corporate and specialist departmental systems. Although the technical aspects of ICT
infrastructure are the responsibility of ICT specialists, managers and accountants
have a management and developmental role to play, and will therefore need to
understand the basics.
Introduction
01
Continual advances in technology have made selection decisions for computer
hardware more complex. Until recently, large corporate databases supported the
acquisition of large corporate servers in the form of mainframe computers, leaving
many smaller and more specific applications to be catered for by smaller
departmental machines or standalone PCs. Such machines were often totally
controlled at the user end and became networked to other similar machines for the
purposes of communications and data transfer.
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02
Historically, the larger ICT resources were held in central locations due to their high
cost and specification. More recently the general trend, linked to changes in
technology and cost, has been to decentralise computing power, providing
technology and processing power directly under the control of service managers. The
information required to make informed decisions on the acquisition of ICT services
has therefore switched to the same managerial control level. To achieve proper
corporate management of the ICT infrastructure, a corporate group or an individual
usually takes on the responsibility for determining direction for ICT services, in line
with the ICT strategy (see the ICT Strategy section). This helps ensure that maximum
benefit is obtained from the investment made.
03
In spite of this decentralisation, corporate servers still cannot be dismissed as they
play an important role in the overall provision of an infrastructure strategy by virtue
of lower support cost and better security benefits. There is also now a trend for some
organisations to use smaller numbers of servers in a central location, as this makes
them easier to manage and helps in disaster recovery.
04
The provision of the right infrastructure will allow the user to take full advantage of
future advancements in technology.
Open Systems
05
The dynamic and complex environment of business in general and the economic and
political pressures for change in public service management meant that managers
were no longer prepared to be locked into single hardware and software solutions.
The relative investment expense of proprietary information systems and their failure
to interoperate used to hold organisations hostage when suppliers delayed new
technologies and upgrades. The move to open systems has helped to overcome these
problems.
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06
The concept of open systems is taken for granted now as the manner by which
systems are able to interact internally with their subsystems, and externally with their
environment.
07
The development of open systems resulted in hardware and software products that
were in some way standard, as opposed to proprietary systems associated with one
manufacturer. In theory, this means that the best hardware platform and the best
software solution for a particular need can be selected independently from one
another. However, detailed planning and project management are essential if
successful implementations are to be achieved. Logically, these should have followed
a full options appraisal, including cost benefit analysis.
08
Along with the migration towards open systems, there has also been a tendency to
move away from traditional mainframe systems to systems running on smaller and
cheaper mid-range processors utilising for example UNIX, Sun or Windows. These
systems run on many different makes of hardware, although the portability from one
machine operating system to another must be thoroughly checked.
09
Network processors have now been developed that match the capacity, speed,
reliability, durability and cost of the mid-range processors. This has prompted many
users to assess if the majority of their corporate needs can be met by networking.
Communications
Networking
10
Networking is a logical extension of the open systems concept. It is concerned with
communication between systems and ultimately the exchange of data; for example,
sending and receiving e-mails or sending a print request to a networked printer.
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11
A sound communications structure is essential for the use of e-mail, both internally
and externally through the Internet, and for other technologies such as document
image processing. These subjects are considered more fully in the Applications
section. [Perhaps, provide a hyperlink.]
12
The problem of how to link the variety of systems that may run within individual
organisations is one for the ICT specialist. It is, however, important that managers
and users have an appreciation of the potential for interconnectivity and how
business benefits can be derived from such linkages. Due to the tendency to
decentralise computing resources, networking is crucial to ensure that corporate data
can be accessed and shared by those who need it.
13
It is important that networking is controlled corporately to ensure usage and
compatibility of networks is maintained. Management of the network infrastructure,
and its data, is vital to ensure an efficient flow of information. Central monitoring of
PC servers, network traffic and overall performance should be carried out on an
ongoing basis.
14
With the gradual reduction in the relative cost of new technology and the increasing
number of compatible devices in a localised area, a greater need arose for an
inexpensive means of linking ICT equipment together in the form of local area
networks (LANs).
Local area networks (LANs)
15
LANs are now a familiar part of the office environment. They allow computer
equipment on a given site, or in an office, to be linked. The main advantages for
users, is that all authorised users have access to shared files, software and network
resources such as high speed laser printers, colour printers, plotters, scanners and fax
modems - where purchases for each individual user could not be justified. Perhaps,
more importantly, a also LAN allows security issues such as access, virus protection
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and back-up to be coordinated at one source rather than relying on individual users.
LANs also have the advantage that staff can be moved easily within an office.
16
Network managers face difficult challenges. They must provide network access to
virtually every employee, build infrastructures that can work with a broad range of
high-speed LAN technologies and manage systems with unpredictable and
changeable data flows.[Not sure what point we are making. Are we meant to feel
sorry for network managers, or are we saying that the work is complex and has to be
done correctly]
17
Also, a LAN has the benefit of providing a means of integrating non-compatible
computers. Many offices today have a mix of PCs and perhaps UNIX and mainframe
workstations. A network can solve the problem of incompatible hardware and
operating systems by translating all data into a form that can be understood and used
by the different types of computer in the office.
18
There are two broad types of LAN:

peer to peer

client/server.
Peer to peer LANs
19
Peer to peer LANs connect each PC either by direct cabling or through a central PC
and allow the sharing of resources such as peripheral devices and storage, as shown
in the diagram below. There is no dedicated fileserver as each PC effectively shares
that responsibility. This arrangement is generally used to connect a small number of
PCs, as it is a cheaper alternative to a client/server arrangement. The main
disadvantage is the slower speed of operation, as each PC is performing some of the
functions of the server. As a peer to peer network has no dedicated computer for
shared data (fileserver), each user determines the resources they wish to share with
others.
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Peer to peer-based LAN
Desktop PC
Peer to peer
Personal printer
Desktop PC
Desktop PC
Desktop PC
Personal printer
Client/server LANs
20
Client/server LANs consist of a number of PCs connected to a central fileserver
which stores shared data and applications software, as shown in the diagram below.
This fileserver administers the network and controls network traffic, and all
connected PCs communicate through it. The main advantages of this arrangement are
the speed of operation and the central control. The disadvantages are the setup and
running cost and the inability to share the hard disk storage on one PC with another.
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Client/server-based LAN
Desktop PC
Client
Personal printer
Desktop PC
Client
Desktop PC
Client
Server
Workstation
Client
Personal printer
Network cabling
21
The way in which cabling is laid for LANs is the responsibility of the ICT specialist.
Briefly, however, there are two main types: token ring and Ethernet. Both are
sophisticated network topologies allowing the sharing of computing resources.
22
A token ring LAN is a group of computers connected in a loop. Each computer can
send a signal along the loop, after first receiving permission to do so. The permission
is in the form of a token attached to the data being sent. Only one computer at a time
may have control on the network and the signal sent will travel from one computer
(or networked peripheral) to the other until it reaches its initiator. An illustration of a
basic token ring topology is shown in the diagram below.
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Token ring LAN
Desktop PC
Client
Desktop PC
Client
Token ring
Server
Workstation
Client
Networked printer
Client
23
Desktop PC
Client
Personal printer
Ethernet LANs use a bus topology in that all the network devices are connected to a
single long cable. Any device can send a signal along the cable, which all the other
devices will receive. Data is only sent after the sending device listens to the network
to see if it is already in use. Ethernet is currently the de-facto standard for LANs. An
illustration of a basic Ethernet bus topology is shown in the diagram below.
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Ethernet LAN
Server
Desktop PC
Client
Networked printer
Client
Ethernet bus
Workstation
Client
24
Desktop PC
Client
These topologies introduced new requirements for wiring and saw the development
of Category 3 (Ethernet) and Category 4 (token ring). Within the last few years,
corporate ICT has become almost completely LAN based and a new cabling standard
(Category 5, or structured cabling as it is more commonly called) has been
introduced to provide higher data transmission levels and to provide for future
advancements in communication technologies.
25
Gigabit Ethernet is a technology for Ethernet networking at a speed of one gigabit
per second. It is mainly used for large, high capacity backbone networks, but it has
started to be introduced for desktop PCs where high capacity is required for certain
specialised applications.
26
Organisations may experience problems when introducing a LAN; especially where a
large amount of computer based equipment already exists. Typical problems
encountered may be that:
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
previously expensive software solutions may become redundant;

major new software may become necessary;

training may be necessary for staff with responsibility for supervising and
administering the networks;

physical installation problems with new cabling may arise, such as the
discovery of asbestos.
Wireless LANs
27
A wireless LAN uses wireless technology (usually Wireless Fidelity – WiFi), rather
than cables, to provide the link between users’ PCs and the network. There are
currently nearly 4,000 WiFi ‘hotspots’ in the UK – areas of approximately 30m
radius that allow people to access the Internet and corporate networks wirelessly.
They are mostly in airports, hotels, conference centres and other public areas.
28
However, as the cost of the technology has fallen, wireless LANs are increasingly
being installed in homes and offices. They are easy to install and use, and can be
installed in old buildings or other locations where cabling is difficult. They improve
flexibility by removing the need for cables when staff log on to the network. This is
particularly beneficial for employees who work remotely and are only in the office
occasionally, or who may be moving around the building.
29
Despite these benefits, wireless LANs do have some disadvantages when compared
to wired networks. Data transfer speed will be slower, as all users of a wireless base
station will have to share the available bandwidth. Security is also a major concern.
A WiFi hotspot has a radius of 30m, including through walls, so the network will be
accessible outside the building. Encryption must be used, and updated frequently.
Wide area networks (WANs)
30
Where the hardware is not located on a single site it can be linked together by use of
a wide area network (WAN). WANs are less common and more expensive than
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LANs but operate on the same basic principles except that each site is linked
together.
31
A WAN can exist on a single site; the distinction between a LAN and a WAN is
actually determined by the geographic location of the devices being connected and
hence the length of cabling required.
32
Organisations often have a number of LANs that may be based on departments or
sections. Once an appropriate corporate communications infrastructure is in place
across the organisation then LANs will be able to interact with each other and the full
associated benefits of a WAN will be available.
Communications links
33
Structured cabling is generally acknowledged as the approach needed to ‘future
proof’ infrastructure. Cabling has always been the longest-lived element of any
system. Accordingly, there may be good reason to introduce infrastructure that is
over-specified for the original system. Until recently, buildings would have different
cabling for different communications systems. Structured cabling can replace all this
with a single system for voice, data and video covering the whole site.
34
Structured cabling can also go some way towards easing an organisation’s cabling
problems by using a single cable to carry all transmissions. This cable passes through
all of the offices to be served by a network, enabling all existing and future devices to
be connected to it. Depending on the size of the building, it may be necessary to add
‘repeaters’ to extend the capability of the cabling, as some information degradation
occurs over long cable runs. The use of a communications ‘backbone’ (a cable
running through all sites) can allow many servers and workstations to be physically
attached to it, whilst logically isolating each individual network through software
control.
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35
In addition to the cabling within the organisation, communications links to the public
telephone network and the Internet must also be considered. The development of
broadband infrastructure, including fibre-optic cabling, digital exchanges and
satellite communication systems, together with the increasing convergence of
computer and communications technology, is beginning to improve the efficiency
and cost of computer communications. This has stemmed from the deregulation in
the telecoms industry, which has prompted a large investment in digital
infrastructure.
36
Laser communications links can also be used as a substitute for cables, for example
for LAN to LAN links between buildings and where physical barriers such as roads
restrict the use of cable. Line of sight is required, and the link can be affected by
atmospheric conditions such as fog or pollution. However, laser provides a high
speed connection that can be set up quickly, and as the beam is very narrow it is more
secure than other wireless technologies.
37
Voice over IP (VoIP) technology can be used to make telephone calls over IP-based
networks (i.e. over the internet or over an internal LAN –like using Broadband at
home). This technology uses much less bandwidth than traditional telephony, and is
therefore cheaper, particularly for long distance calls. It also has the advantage of
reducing the amount of infrastructure needed, as a single network can be used to
carry both voice and data.
Broadband infrastructure
38
Most communication between machines is still carried out over public telephone
lines by the use of modem and telecommunications software. However, this means of
communication is limited by the quality and speed of data transmission coupled with
the occasional unreliability of the telephone network. UK telecoms operators are
increasingly rolling out broadband infrastructure, and this can now alleviate the
problems with the quality [Is quality the right word, as speed an capacity
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improvements, don’t necessarily lead to improved quality.] of data transmission, by
increasing the speed and volume of data that can be transmitted.
39
The term ‘broadband’ refers to telecommunication in which a wide band of
frequencies is available to transmit information. This allows information to be sent
on many different frequencies or channels simultaneously, allowing more
information to be transmitted in a given amount of time (just as more lanes on a
motorway allow more traffic). Although definitions vary, broadband is often classed
as data transmission at speeds of 256kbit/s or more (about “x” times faster than using
a standard telephone line and modem). The main broadband technologies are
outlined below.
Leased lines
40
A leased line (or dedicated line) is a permanent connection between two sites, rented
from a telecoms carrier for private use to interconnect different geographic locations
within an organisation, or to connect an organisation to the Internet. Speeds can vary
depending on the organisation’s needs. At a corporate level the per capita costs are
reasonable, but for individuals who work away from their main base the costs are
excessive. In response, the market has begun to provide lower cost solutions such as
virtual private networks (VPNs) and other broadband technologies.
41
A VPN uses public telecoms infrastructure, such as the Internet [Do we mean the
Internet, or telephone lines?], to provide remote offices or individuals with secure
access to the organisation’s network by means of ‘tunnelling protocols’, which
encrypt data at the sending end and decrypt it at the receiving end. This provides the
same capabilities as a leased line, but at a lower cost.
ISDN
42
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a technology for digital transmission
over ordinary copper telephone lines, and allows data to be transmitted at speeds up
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to 128kbit/s (about half the speed of Broadband.) This is much faster than using a
normal phone line for Internet access, and allows applications such as video
conferencing, but ISDN is not a true broadband technology and is being superseded
by higher speed DSL services.
DSL
43
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology for providing broadband access over
ordinary telephone lines. Unlike dial-up connections and ISDN, DSL provides
continuously available ‘always on’ access. It is faster than ISDN, and much cheaper
than a leased line connection. The availability of DSL was initially limited but is now
increasing.
44
The most common version of DSL is Asymmetric DSL (ADSL), so called because
more bandwidth is available for downloading data than for uploading data. This is
generally used for Internet access by residential users and small businesses, where the
volume of data downloaded is usually much higher than that uploaded. It could also
be used for connecting homeworkers. Symmetric DSL (SDSL) provides equal
bandwidth in each direction, and is aimed at the business market.
Fibre
45
The most efficient form of broadband access is to extend fibre-optic cables all the
way into the organisation’s premises. This provides extremely high capacity, at
speeds up to 100 times faster than DSL. However, it is also the most expensive
method, as costly new cables must be laid, and this will limit its usage for the
foreseeable future.
Fixed wireless access
46
Fixed wireless access is a technology for providing connectivity through wireless
radio instead of traditional copper or fibre. Despite the government’s efforts to issue
spectrum licences and encourage development, the technology is not widely available
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in the UK. However, it may eventually find a niche in rural areas where it is difficult
to build physical broadband infrastructure.
3G mobile technology
47
The main UK mobile companies are introducing third generation mobile networks
(3G). 3G technology provides much higher bandwidth than previous mobile
technologies, allowing new services such as video calling and Internet access via
mobile devices. Since the technology is just emerging and is not yet available in all
areas, most organisations have yet to consider how they might use it. However, this
technology has significant potential for urban authorities (connectivity is unlikely to
spread to rural areas).
48
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a ‘2.5G’ mobile technology that provides a
higher bandwidth than standard GSM mobile services. It has been widely used for
data services such as Internet access and e-mail via mobile phones, although it is
likely to eventually be replaced by the higher bandwidth 3G technology.
Other communications issues
49
It should be noted that communications involves much more than internal
networking
of
computer
equipment.
Modern
office equipment
facilitates
communication worldwide, with other organisations, and with other departments,
divisions or sections of an organisation.
50
Communications technology also gives the opportunity to decentralise mainframe
applications, and facilitates the much wider use of PC applications in the production
and publication of information. It allows different users within an organisation to
access shared applications, such as diary management applications and other office
packages. It also facilitates the growing trend towards homeworking, as users can
gain remote access to the organisation’s network from home, via an Internet
connection, and can use the organisation’s applications in the same way as office-
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based workers. (See the Mobile Government section for more information on home
working.)
Servers
51
Placing major corporate packages on individual departmental servers has a number of
advantages. This approach not only allows the organisation to respond to local
computing needs, rather than those of the centre, but also promotes the concept of
ownership of the core corporate systems amongst the departments concerned.
52
Seting up local departmental servers (whether they are physically located in
departments or in a central ICT suite) allows them to be upgraded according to
departmental needs. Usage, performance and trends can be monitored more easily,
and consequently this can avoid the arguments that one department is subsidising the
computing costs of another.
53
Introducing devolved computing can provide better resilience than using a central
facility. Should either network or hardware problems prevent access to the central
computer installation in an organisation without departmental servers then all
services will be impaired. Should a departmental computer go down then the rest of
the organisation will still function normally. [I thionk this paragraph needs
rewoeding.]
54
The existence of a number of servers on a corporate network enables the backing-up
of data across the network on-site for disaster recovery. Having several similar
servers on the network provides continuity of service in the event of problems with
an individual server. The ability to provide in-house disaster recovery could provide
some savings as opposed to buying in this type of service from outside. Back-up
media should of course be stored off site to provide data security in the event of fire
or other physical damage to the site.
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55
Some improvements in user response times can be achieved by splitting the corporate
systems between a series of departmental boxes[What does this mean?]. Routines
requiring the sorting and extraction of departmental data may be run more quickly on
a departmental database mounted on a local server rather than a central one. Again
the existence of departmental servers means that heavy use of local hardware will not
impact on performance of servers held in other departments. The sizing and
performance issues on the local server therefore becomes a departmental
responsibility, providing it dovetails in with corporate requirements.
56
By strategically siting the local departmental servers around a corporate network,
potential bottlenecks can be avoided and network performance improved. This is of
particular relevance given the likely increase in both the quantity and size of data
packets likely to be transmitted over the network in the future.
57
With the move towards running critical applications on networked systems, the need
has arisen for systems that are continuously available. These systems and the
software and strategies around them look to reduce or eliminate downtime owing to
hardware and software failures. A balance needs to be struck between increased
availability and the corresponding increased cost in time, money and effort.
Specifications
58
Individually personal computers (PCs) are relatively inexpensive but collectively
they make up a significant investment. As with any type of procurement it is
important to make informed decisions regarding specification. An organisation
should therefore specify the standard build requirement for its networked
components and PCs as part of its ICT strategy or, alternatively, specify and purchase
all PCs centrally.
59
Agreed standards are likely to consider:
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60

maintainability

reliability

compatibility

upgradeability

quality

supplier support

individual component specifications

firmware

social and environmental factors

health & safety.
The extent of consideration over specifications is also likely to be a function of cost
and how key the component is to the functioning of the network and ultimately the
business.
Network Computers (Workstations) update needed
61
Network computers can be defined in a number of ways. In its simplest form a
network computer refers to a terminal, a “dumb” PC that runs its applications from a
central server. One advantage of this is that large organisations can use cheap
terminals that are not worth stealing while the expensive servers are locked away. It
also enables IT administration and support costs to be reduced, while users are still
able to work with the Windows interface and benefit from all of a PC’s functionality.
Software
62
The move to open systems, by definition, provided greater flexibility in terms of
potential software suppliers and consequently a greater choice of applications. It is
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crucial that software provides what the organisation really needs. Important
considerations will include:
63

the need to meet statutory reporting requirements

general output produced and flexibility of reporting

resources required to maintain the system

interfaces with other systems

ease of use

meets business objectives.
Software packages are available for a wide range of functions, from the vast
corporate systems on which the whole organisation depends to simple PC based
solutions:

corporate systems include such functions as the general ledger which all areas
of the organisation need to access. Such systems will be likely to be controlled
centrally and will determine the requirements for other smaller systems in
terms of interfacing etc;

departmental systems are those that are mainly used by one department or
section. Such a system may need to interface with the main corporate systems;

office systems are usually based on PCs and include applications such as word
processing and spreadsheets.
64
Clearly, there is a close link between all these systems. A networked PC will be used
to run office systems as well as to access departmental and corporate systems.
65
Investment in software in many organisations will be substantial. Managers will wish
to ensure that licences are purchased only for those PCs that are used to gainaccess
to the system, and that some hard evidence is available which demonstrates that the
organisation is abiding by the licence agreement. To provide this facility some form
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of software tracking may be considered necessary. Packages are available which can
monitor software usage and provide information on the minimum number of licences
that will be required.
66
Open source software (OSS) – software for which the source code is made freely
available, allowing anyone to use the software or create a new version – is currently
attracting interest and government funding, for example through the second round of
E-Innovations funding. One E-Innovations project, led by Birmingham City Council,
will create an ‘Open Source Academy’ to research OSS and encourage its adoption
by local authorities. This is intended to promote interoperability and provide
efficiency gains and cost savings by reducing duplication of work. More information
is available from the Local E-Gov website.
67
See the Applications section for more information on software.[Hyperlink please.]
Summary
68
Managers need to give careful consideration to an organisation’s ICT infrastructure,
due to the expense involved and the critical functions that will depend on it. Open
systems hardware and a sound communications infrastructure allow the organisation
to operate efficiently and to take advantage of technologies such as e-mail, the
internet and document image processing.
69
While many organisations have moved away from mainframe computers, it is
important to recognise the valuable role these can still play. Investment in large
numbers of PCs should be protected by the adoption of specification standards to
ensure compatibility, performance and maximum useful life. Care must be taken to
ensure that software provides the functionality required and that appropriate numbers
of user licences are available.
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Useful Websites Relating to ICT Infrastructure
Open systems

www.opengroup.org
Networking and communications

The Electronic Industries Alliance: www.eia.org, and the Internet Engineering
Taskforce: www.ieee.org, for cabling standards

The International Organization for Standardization: www.iso.ch, for general
standards

www.yahoo.com/Computers_and_internet/communications_and_networking

www.yahoo.com/Computers_and_internet/software/communications_and_net
working
Vendor sites that provide useful information and white papers

Hewlett-Packard: www.hp.com/rnd

IBM: www.networking.ibm.com

Intel: www.intel.com/network/connectivity/

Cisco Systems: www.cisco.com

3Com: www.3com.com
Internet information sites

Internet Society: www.isoc.org

Internet Engineering Taskforce: www.ietf.org

InterNIC: www.internic.net
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Online periodicals

www.infoworld.com

www.lanmag.com

www.lantimes.com

www.theregister.co.uk

www.zdnet.com
General areas of interest

www.brint.com/interest.html

Birmingham City Council’s Open Source Academy project

Business Link IT and e-commerce page
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