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• Measurement
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comScore Unified Digital Measurement
comScore has developed this
proprietary methodology to calculate
audience reach in a manner not
affected by variables such as cookie
deletion and cookie
blocking/rejection to help reconcile
longstanding differences between the
two measurement approaches.
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comScore Campaign Measurement
comScore debuted Campaign
Essentials in 2010 to measure how
digital campaigns are reaching their
audiences. In March 2012, comScore
launched validated Campaign
Essentials (vCE), which introduced the
notion of “validated” impressions. In
January 2013, comScore announced
that it had evaluated 4,000 campaigns
for clients covering more than 75
advertising agencies.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
The performance of a
monitor is measured by
the following
parameters:
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
1
Luminance is measured in candelas per square
meter (cd/m2 also called a Nit).
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the
horizontal length to the vertical length.
Monitors usually have the aspect ratio
4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
Viewable image is usually measured
diagonally, but the actual widths and
heights are more informative since they
are not affected by the aspect ratio in the
same way. For CRTs, the viewable is
typically 1 in (25 mm) smaller than the
tube itself.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
1
Display resolution is the number of distinct
pixels in each dimension that can be
displayed. Maximum resolution is limited
by dot pitch.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
Dot pitch is the distance between
subpixels of the same color in millimeters.
In general, the smaller the dot pitch, the
sharper the picture will appear.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
1
Refresh rate is the number of times in
a second that a display is illuminated.
Maximum refresh rate is limited by
response time.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
1
Response time is the time a pixel in a
monitor takes to go from active (white)
to inactive (black) and back to active
(white) again, measured in
milliseconds. Lower numbers mean
faster transitions and therefore fewer
visible image artifacts.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
Contrast ratio is the ratio of the
luminosity of the brightest color
(white) to that of the darkest color
(black) that the monitor is capable of
producing.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
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Power consumption is measured in
watts.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
Delta-E: Color accuracy is measured in
delta-E; the lower the delta-E, the more
accurate the color representation. A deltaE of below 1 is imperceptible to the human
eye. Delta-Es of 2 to 4 are considered
good and require a sensitive eye to spot
the difference.
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Computer monitor Measurements of performance
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Viewing angle is the maximum angle at
which images on the monitor can be
viewed, without excessive degradation to
the image. It is measured in degrees
horizontally and vertically.
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Supplier relationship management Value measurement
1
SRM delivers a competitive advantage by
harnessing talent and ideas from key
supply partners and translates this into
product and service offerings for end
customers
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Supplier relationship management Value measurement
A practice of leading organizations is to
track specific SRM savings generated at
an individual supplier level, and also at an
aggregated SRM program level, through
existing procurement benefit measurement
systems
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8 (number) In measurement
In liquid measurement (United States
customary units), there are eight fluid
ounces in a cup, eight pints in a gallon and
eight tablespoonfuls in a gill.
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8 (number) In measurement
There are eight
furlongs in a mile.
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8 (number) In measurement
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The clove, an old English unit of weight, was equal
to eight pounds when measuring cheese.
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8 (number) In measurement
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Force eight is the first wind strength
attributed to a gale on the Beaufort
scale when announced on a Shipping
Forecast.
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Mention (blogging) - Influence measurement
1
The hyperlink created by appending
@ to the front of a username is
indexed by various third-party Social
Media-oriented analytics applications
to measure the influence of a
mentioned user (i.e., Klout or The
Washington Post's Mention Machine).
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Data analysis - Quality of measurements
The quality of the measurement
instruments should only be checked during
the initial data analysis phase when this is
not the focus or research question of the
study. One should check whether structure
of measurement instruments corresponds
to structure reported in the literature.
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Data analysis - Quality of measurements
1
There are two ways to assess
measurement quality:
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Data analysis - Quality of measurements
Analysis of homogeneity (internal
consistency), which gives an indication of
the reliability of a measurement
instrument. During this analysis, one
inspects the variances of the items and the
scales, the Cronbach's α of the scales,
and the change in the Cronbach's alpha
when an item would be deleted from a
scale.
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Glare (vision) - Measurement
1
Glare is typically measured with luminance
meters or luminance cameras, both of
which are able to determine the luminance
of objects within small solid angles. The
glare of a scene i.e. visual field of view, is
then calculated from the luminance data of
that scene.
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Glare (vision) - Measurement
1
The International Commission on
Illumination (CIE) defines glare as:
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Glare (vision) - Measurement
visual conditions in which there is
excessive contrast or an inappropriate
distribution of light sources that
disturbs the observer or limits the
ability to distinguish details and
objects.
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Glare (vision) - Measurement
1
The CIE recommends the Unified glare
rating (UGR) as a quantitative measure
of glare. Other glare calculation
methods include CIBSE Glare Index,
IES Glare Index and the Daylight Glare
Index (DGI).
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Nuclear engineering - Radiation protection and measurement
Radiation measurement is
fundamental to the Science and
practice of Radiation Protection,
sometimes known as radiological
protection, which is the protection of
people and the environment from the
harmful effects of ionizing radiation
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Nuclear engineering - Radiation protection and measurement
Nuclear engineers and radiological
scientists are interested in the
development of more advanced
ionizing radiation measurement and
detection systems, and using these to
improve imaging technologies. This
includes detector design, fabrication
and analysis, measurements of
fundamental atomic and nuclear
parameters, and radiation imaging
systems, among other things.
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Nuclear engineering - Radiation protection and measurement
1
Hand-held large area alpha
scintillation probe under
calibration
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement software
1
At the moment a consortium of several
company are working on a free
implementation of the above parameters.
This is called OpenGPS .
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement instruments
1
Part 6 of the standard
divides the usable
technologies into three
families:
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement instruments
1
Topographical instruments: contact and
non-contact 3D profilometers,
interferometric and confocal microscopes,
structured light projectors, stereoscopic
microscopes, etc.
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement instruments
Profilometric instruments: contact
and non-contact 2D profilometers, line
triangulation lasers, etc.
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement instruments
1
Instruments functioning by integration:
pneumatic measurement, capacitive, by
optical diffusion, etc.
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement instruments
1
Next, the standard explores a number of
these technologies in detail and dedicates
two documents to each of them:
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement instruments
Part 6xx: nominal
characteristics of the
instrument
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ISO 25178 - 3D surface texture measurement instruments
1
Part 7xx: calibration
of the instrument
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Radar - Speed measurement
Speed is the change in distance to an
object with respect to time. Thus the
existing system for measuring distance,
combined with a memory capacity to see
where the target last was, is enough to
measure speed. At one time the memory
consisted of a user making grease pencil
marks on the radar screen and then
calculating the speed using a slide rule.
Modern radar systems perform the
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Radar - Speed measurement
If the transmitter's output is coherent
(phase synchronized), there is another
effect that can be used to make almost
instant speed measurements (no memory
is required), known as the Doppler effect
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Radar - Speed measurement
It is possible to make a doppler radar
without any pulsing, known as a
continuous-wave radar (CW radar), by
sending out a very pure signal of a known
frequency. CW radar is ideal for
determining the radial component of a
target's velocity. CW radar is typically used
by traffic enforcement to measure vehicle
speed quickly and accurately where range
is not important.
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Radar - Speed measurement
1
When using a pulsed radar, the variation
between the phase of successive returns
gives the distance the target has moved
between pulses, and thus its speed can be
calculated. Other mathematical
developments in radar signal processing
include time-frequency analysis (Weyl
Heisenberg or wavelet), as well as the
chirplet transform which makes use of the
change of frequency of returns from
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Dispositional affect - Measurement
1
Operationalizations for dispositional affect can be
measured by questionnaires
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Experimental psychology - Scales of measurement
1
Measurement can be defined as "the
assignment of numerals to objects or
events according to rules." Almost all
psychological experiments involve
some sort of measurement, if only to
determine the reliability and validity
of results, and of course measurement
is essential if results are to be relevant
to quantitative theories.
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Experimental psychology - Scales of measurement
1
The rule for assigning numbers to a
property of an object or event is called
a "scale". Following are the basic
scales used in psychological
measurement.
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Experimental psychology - Nominal measurement
In a nominal scale, numbers are used
simply as labels – a letter or name would
do as well. Examples are the numbers on
the shirts of football or baseball players.
The labels are more useful if the same
label can be given to more than one thing,
meaning that the things are equal in some
way, and can be classified together.
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Experimental psychology - Ordinal measurement
1
An ordinal scale arises from the ordering
or ranking objects, so that A is greater than
B, B is greater than C, and so on
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Experimental psychology - Interval measurement
1
See next section.) "Standard scores" on
an achievement test are said to be
measurements on an interval scale, but
this is difficult to prove.
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Experimental psychology - Ratio measurement
A ratio scale is
constructed by
determining the
equality of ratios
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Broadcatching - Measurement Study
Zhang et al. have evaluated
Broadcatching using PlanetLab testbed
in 2008. About 200 PlanetLab nodes all
over the world were used in their study.
Their results have demonstrated
Broadcatching can greatly improve the
performance of the BitTorrent system.
Through this mechanism, every node is
able to complete the file downing much
faster.
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Smart grid - Sensing and measurement
Technologies include: advanced
microprocessor meters (smart meter) and
meter reading equipment, wide-area
monitoring systems, dynamic line rating
(typically based on online readings by
Distributed temperature sensing combined
with Real time thermal rating (RTTR)
systems), electromagnetic signature
measurement/analysis, time-of-use and
real-time pricing tools, advanced switches
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Smart grid - Phasor measurement units
1
Phasor measurement unit
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Smart grid - Phasor measurement units
1
In the 1980s, it was realized that the clock
pulses from global positioning system
(GPS) satellites could provide very precise
time signals to devices in the field,
allowing measurement of voltage phase
angle differences across wide distances
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Smart grid - Phasor measurement units
A wide-area measurement system
(WAMS) is a network of PMUS that can
provide real-time monitoring on a regional
and national scale. Many in the power
systems engineering community believe
that the Northeast blackout of 2003 could
have been contained to a much smaller
area if a wide area phasor measurement
network had been in place.
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Conscientiousness - Measurement
Extent of conscientiousness is
generally assessed using self-report
measures, although peer-reports and
third-party observation can also be
used. Self-report measures are either
lexical or based on statements.
Deciding which measure of either
type to use in research is determined
by an assessment of psychometric
properties and the time and space
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Neurotechnology - Cranial surface measurements
1
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method of
measuring brainwave activity non-invasively
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Neurotechnology - Cranial surface measurements
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is
another method of measuring activity in
the brain by measuring the magnetic fields
that arise from electrical currents in the
brain. The benefit to using MEG instead of
EEG is that these fields are highly
localized and give rise to better
understanding of how specific loci react to
stimulation or if these regions overactivate (as in epileptic seizures).
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Sensor - Classification of measurement errors
1
A good sensor obeys the following
rules:
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Sensor - Classification of measurement errors
Is sensitive to the
measured property
only
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Sensor - Classification of measurement errors
1
Is insensitive to any other property likely to be
encountered in its application
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Sensor - Classification of measurement errors
1
Does not influence
the measured
property
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Sensor - Classification of measurement errors
For example, if a sensor measures
temperature and has a voltage output,
the sensitivity is a constant with the
unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear
because the ratio is constant at all
points of measurement.
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Sensor - Classification of measurement errors
For an analog sensor signal to be
processed, or used in digital equipment, it
needs to be converted to a digital signal,
using an analog-to-digital converter.
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Infrastructure - Earth monitoring and measurement networks
1
Stream Gauge or fluviometric
monitoring networks
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
The power of an engine may be measured
or estimated at several points in the
transmission of the power from its
generation to its application. A number of
names are used for the power developed
at various stages in this process, but none
is a clear indicator of either the
measurement system or definition used.
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
In the case of an engine dynamometer,
power is measured at the engine's
flywheel. With a chassis dynamometer or
rolling road, power output is measured at
the driving wheels. This accounts for the
significant power loss through the drive
train.
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
Nominal is derived from the size of the
engine and the piston speed and is only
accurate at a pressure of 48 kPa (7 psi).
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
minus frictional losses within the engine
(bearing drag, rod and crankshaft windage
losses, oil film drag, etc.), equals
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
Brake / net / crankshaft horsepower
(power delivered directly to and
measured at the engine's crankshaft)
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
minus frictional losses in the transmission
(bearings, gears, oil drag, windage, etc.),
equals
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
Shaft horsepower (power delivered to
and measured at the output shaft of
the transmission, when present in the
system)
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Horsepower - Measurement
minus frictional losses in the universal
joint/s, differential, wheel bearings, tire and
chain, (if present), equals
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Horsepower - Measurement
Effective, True (thp) or
commonly referred to as
wheel horsepower (whp)
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
All the above assumes that no power inflation
factors have been applied to any of the readings.
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Horsepower - Measurement
1
Engine designers use expressions other
than horsepower to denote objective
targets or performance, such as brake
mean effective pressure (BMEP). This is a
coefficient of theoretical brake horsepower
and cylinder pressures during combustion.
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Gross domestic product - National measurement
1
Within each country GDP is normally
measured by a national government
statistical agency, as private sector
organizations normally do not have
access to the information required
(especially information on expenditure
and production by governments).
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Gross domestic product - National measurement
National agencies
responsible for GDP
measurement
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of
(economic) progress
1
Human development index (HDI) – up until
2009 report HDI used GDP as a part of its
calculation and then factors in indicators of
life expectancy and education levels. In
2010 the GDP component has been
replaced with GNI.
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of (economic)
progress
1
Genuine progress indicator (GPI) or Index
of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW)
– The GPI and the ISEW attempt to
address many of the above criticisms by
taking the same raw information supplied
for GDP and then adjust for income
distribution, add for the value of household
and volunteer work, and subtract for crime
and pollution.
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of
(economic) progress
1
Gross national happiness (GNH) – GNH
measures quality of life or social
progress in more holistic and
psychological terms than GDP.
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of
(economic) progress
European Quality of Life Survey – The
survey, first published in 2005, assessed
quality of life across European countries
through a series of questions on overall
subjective life satisfaction, satisfaction with
different aspects of life, and sets of
questions used to calculate deficits of
time, loving, being and having.
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of
(economic) progress
1
Gross national happiness – The Centre
for Bhutanese Studies in Bhutan is
working on a complex set of subjective
and objective indicators to measure
'national happiness' in various domains
(living standards, health, education,
eco-system diversity and resilience,
cultural vitality and diversity, time use
and balance, good governance,
community vitality and psychological
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of
(economic) progress
Happy Planet Index – The happy
planet index (HPI) is an index of
human well-being and environmental
impact, introduced by the New
Economics Foundation (NEF) in 2006.
It measures the environmental
efficiency with which human wellbeing is achieved within a given
country or group. Human well-being is
defined in terms of subjective life
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of (economic)
progress
There is felt to be considerable
convergence (in 2011) in high income
countries about the kinds of
dimensions that should be included in
such multi-dimensional approaches to
welfare measurement - see for
instance the capabilities
measurement research project
capabilities approach.
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of
(economic) progress
Composite Wealth Indicators –
Namely yearly material wealth (an
amended version of GNI to include
depletion of natural resources and the
costs of pollution), biological wealth
(measured through life expectancy)
and thus expected material wealth (or
physical wealth), a linear combination
of biological and yearly material
wealth (the amount of material wealth
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of
(economic) progress
1
Future Orientation Index - Tobias
Preis et al
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Gross domestic product - List of newer approaches to the measurement of (economic)
progress
1
World Governance Index - Basing their
work on the United Nations Millennium
Declaration, which was the subject of
unprecedented U.N
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Adaptive performance - Measurement
1
Pulakos et al
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Software testing - Measurement in software testing
1
Software quality
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Software testing - Measurement in software testing
Usually, quality is constrained to such
topics as correctness, completeness,
security, but can also include more
technical requirements as described under
the ISO standard ISO/IEC 9126, such as
capability, reliability, efficiency, portability,
maintainability, compatibility, and usability.
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Software testing - Measurement in software testing
1
There are a number of frequently used
software metrics, or measures, which are
used to assist in determining the state of
the software or the adequacy of the
testing.
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Street light - Measurement
Two very similar measurement
systems were created to bridge the
scotopic and photopic luminous
efficiency functions, creating a
Unified System of Photometry. This
new measurement has been wellreceived because the reliance on V(λ)
alone for characterizing night-time
light illuminations requires more
electric energy. The cost-savings
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Street light - Measurement
1
Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP)
is a method for predicting and measuring
three different aspects of light pollution:
glow, trespass and glare. Using this
method, lighting specifiers can quantify the
performance of existing and planned
lighting designs and applications to
minimize excessive or obtrusive light
leaving the boundaries of a property.
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Resistor - Measurement
1
The value of a resistor can be measured with an
ohmmeter, which may be one function of a
multimeter
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Resistor - Measurement
1
Measuring low-value resistors, such as
fractional-ohm resistors, with
acceptable accuracy requires fourterminal connections
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
1
Measuring the effect of sky glow on a
global scale is a complex procedure.
The natural atmosphere is not
completely dark, even in the absence
of terrestrial sources of light and
illumination from the Moon. This is
caused by two main sources: airglow
and scattered light.
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
1
At high altitudes, primarily above the
mesosphere, there is enough UV
radiation from the sun of very short
wavelength that ionization occurs
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
1
Apart from emitting light, the sky also
scatters incoming light, primarily from
distant stars and the Milky Way, but
also the zodiacal light, sunlight that is
reflected and backscattered from
interplanetary dust particles.
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
1
The amount of airglow and zodiacal
light is quite variable (depending,
amongst other things on sunspot
activity and the Solar cycle) but given
optimal conditions the darkest
possible sky has a brightness of about
22 magnitude/square arcsecond
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
1
To precisely measure how bright the sky
gets, night time satellite imagery of the
earth is used as raw input for the number
and intensity of light sources. These are
put into a physical model of scattering due
to air molecules and aerosoles to calculate
cumulative sky brightness. Maps that
show the enhanced sky brightness have
been prepared for the entire world.
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
1
Inspection of the area surrounding Madrid
reveals that the effects of light pollution
caused by a single large conglomeration
can be felt up to 100 km (62 mi) away from
the center
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
In North America the situation is
comparable. There is a significant
problem with light pollution ranging
from the Canadian Maritime
Provinces to the American Southwest.
1
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Light pollution - Measurement and global effects
1
Light pollution in Hong Kong was declared the 'worst
on the planet' in March 2013.
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Microwave - Microwave frequency measurement
1
Microwave frequency can be measured by either
electronic or mechanical techniques.
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Microwave - Microwave frequency measurement
1
Frequency counters or high frequency
heterodyne systems can be used. Here
the unknown frequency is compared
with harmonics of a known lower
frequency by use of a low frequency
generator, a harmonic generator and a
mixer. Accuracy of the measurement is
limited by the accuracy and stability of
the reference source.
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Microwave - Microwave frequency measurement
1
Mechanical methods require a tunable
resonator such as an absorption
wavemeter, which has a known relation
between a physical dimension and
frequency.
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Microwave - Microwave frequency measurement
1
Slotted lines are primarily intended for measurement
of the voltage standing wave ratio on the line
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Lead time - Potential Application Areas for Order Lead Time Measurement
Better understanding of the market
behavior making it able to develop
more profitable schemas that fit better
with customer needs (Revenue
Management).
1
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Lead time - Potential Application Areas for Order Lead Time Measurement
The OLT measurement creates an
opportunity area to improve the
customer relations by increasing the
level of communication with them.
1
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History of technology - History of measurement
1
History of measurement
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History of technology - History of measurement
1
History of time in the United
States
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History of technology - History of measurement
1
Timeline of time
measurement
technology
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National Institute of Standards and Technology - Measurements and standards
1
As part of its mission, NIST supplies
industry, academia, government, and
other users with over 1,300 Standard
Reference Materials (SRMs). These
artifacts are certified as having
specific characteristics or component
content, used as calibration standards
for measuring equipment and
procedures, quality control
benchmarks for industrial processes,
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Extraversion and introversion - Measurement
1
The extent of extraversion and introversion
is most commonly assessed through selfreport measures, although peer-reports
and third-party observation can also be
used. Self-report measures are either
lexical or based on statements. The type
of measure is determined by an
assessment of psychometric properties
and the time and space constraints of the
research being undertaken.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Extraversion and introversion - Measurement
Lexical measures use individual
adjectives that reflect extravert and
introvert traits, such as outgoing,
talkative, reserved and quiet
1
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Extraversion and introversion - Measurement
1
Statement measures tend to comprise
more words, and hence consume more
research instrument space, than lexical
measures
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Copy testing - Persuasion Measurement
1
In the 1970s and 1980s, after DAR was
determined to be a poor predictor of
sales, the research industry began to
depend on a measure of persuasion as
an accurate predictor of sales
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Copy testing - Persuasion Measurement
1
Harold Ross of Mapes & Ross found that
persuasion was a better predictor of sales
than recall (Ross), and the predictive
validity of ARS Persuasion to sales has
been reported in several refereed
publications (Adams & Blair; Jones & Blair;
MASB; Mondello).
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Lighting - Measurement
1
The basic SI unit of measurement is the
candela (cd), which describes the
luminous intensity, all other photometric
units are derived from the candela
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Lighting - Measurement
The SI unit of illuminance and
luminous emittance, being the
luminous power per area, is measured
in Lux
1
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Lighting - Measurement
The Unified Glare Rating (UGR), the
Visual Comfort Probability, and the
Daylight Glare Index are some of the most
well-known methods of measurement
1
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Empathy - Measurement
Research into the measurement of
empathy has sought to answer a
number of questions: who should be
carrying out the measurement? What
should pass for empathy and what
should be discounted? What unit of
measure (UOM) should be adopted and
to what degree should each occurrence
precisely match that UOM are also key
questions that researchers have sought
1
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Empathy - Measurement
1
Researchers have approached the measurement
of empathy from a number of perspectives.
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Empathy - Measurement
1
Behavioural measures normally involve
raters assessing the presence or
absence of certain either
predetermined or ad-hoc behaviours in
the subjects they are monitoring
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Empathy - Measurement
Physiological responses tend to be
captured by elaborate electronic
equipment that has been physically
connected to the subject's body.
Researchers then draw inferences
about that person's empathic reactions
from the electronic readings produced
(e.g. Levenson and Ruef, 1992; Leslie et
al., 2004).
1
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Empathy - Measurement
1
Bodily or "somatic" measures can be looked upon
as behavioural measures at a micro level
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Empathy - Measurement
1
Paper-based indices involve one or more of a
variety of methods of responding
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Empathy - Measurement
1
For the very young, picture or puppet-story
indices for empathy have been adopted to
enable even very young, pre-school
subjects to respond without needing to
read questions and write answers (e.g.
Denham and Couchoud, 1990).
Dependent variables (variables that are
monitored for any change by the
experimenter) for younger subjects have
included self reporting on a 7-point smiley
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Empathy - Measurement
1
A certain amount of
confusion exists
about how to
measure empathy
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Empathy - Measurement
1
In the field of medicine, a measurement
tool for carers is the Jefferson Scale of
Physician Empathy, Health Professional
Version (JSPE-HP). At least one study
using this tool with health sciences'
students has found that levels of empathy
are greater amongst females than males,
and also are greater amongst older
students than younger students.
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Empathy - Measurement
1
The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is
the only published measurement tool
accounting for a multi-dimensional
assessment of empathy, consisting of a
self-report questionnaire of 28 items,
divided into four 7-item scales covering the
subdivisions of affective and cognitive
empathy.
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in monitor resolution
1
Monitors do not have dots, but do have
pixels; the closely related concept for
monitors and images is pixels per inch or
PPI.
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in monitor resolution
Old CRT type video displays were
almost universally rated in dot pitch,
which refers to the spacing between
the sub-pixel red, green and blue dots
which made up the pixels themselves.
Monitor manufacturers used the term
"dot trio pitch", the measurement of the
distance between the centers of
adjacent groups of three
dots/rectangles/squares on the CRT
1
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in monitor resolution
LCD monitors have a trio of
subpixels, which are more easily
measured.
1
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in printing
1
DPI is used to describe the resolution
number of dots per inch in a digital
print and the printing resolution of a
hard copy print dot gain, which is the
increase in the size of the halftone dots
during printing. This is caused by the
spreading of ink on the surface of the
media.
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in printing
A printer does not necessarily have a
single DPI measurement; it is dependent
on print mode, which is usually influenced
by driver settings
1
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in printing
1
The DP measurement of a printer often
needs to be considerably higher than the
pixels per inch (PPI) measurement of a
video display in order to produce similarquality output
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in printing
1
Higher-end inkjet printers can offer 5, 6 or
7 ink colors giving 32, 64 or 128 possible
tones per dot location. Contrast this to a
standard sRGB monitor where each pixel
produces 256 intensities of light in each of
three channels (RGB).
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in printing
While some color printers can
produce variable drop volumes at
each dot position, and may use
additional ink-color channels, the
number of colors is still typically less
than on a monitor. Most printers must
therefore produce additional colors
through a halftone or dithering
process. The exception to this rule is a
dye-sublimation printer that utilizes a
1
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in printing
1
The printing process could require a
region of four to six dots (measured
across each side) in order to faithfully
reproduce the color contained in a
single pixel. An image that is 100
pixels wide may need to be 400 to 600
dots in width in the printed output; if a
100×100-pixel image is to be printed
inside a one-inch square, the printer
must be capable of 400 to 600 dots per
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Dots per inch - DPI measurement in printing
A 10 × 10-pixel image on a computer
display usually requires many more than
10 × 10 printer dots to accurately
reproduce, due to limitations of available
ink colors in the printer. The whole blue
pixels making up the sphere are
reproduced by the printer using cyan,
magenta, and black.
1
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Optimum HDTV viewing distance - Diagonal measurement × 2.5
(corresponding to 20-degree viewing angle)
One of the more popular
recommendations on the proper HDTV
viewing distance is multiply the
diagonal measurement of the display
screen by 2.5. This recommendation is
cited by television manufacturers,
retailers, respected publications and
websites, though the popular
electronics review website CNET
suggests that high-resolution content
1
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Optimum HDTV viewing distance - Diagonal measurement × 1.6
(corresponding to 30-degree viewing angle)
1
Viewing an HDTV from a position where
the display occupies a 30 degree field of
view is widely quoted as the SMPTE (or
SMPTE 30) recommendation (equivalent
to about 1.6263 times the screen size in a
16:9 TV)
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Optimum HDTV viewing distance - Diagonal measurement × 1.2
(corresponding to 40-degree viewing angle)
This equates to multiplying the
diagonal measurement with about
1.2
1
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Community journalism - Measurement
Through a qualitative and quantitative
content analysis of scholarship on
community and news media, community
news media should (a) facilitate the
process of negotiating and making
meaning about community and (b) reveal
or ensure understanding of community
structure.
1
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Community journalism - Measurement
1
Community journalism would ideally
reveal, or make individuals aware of,
spaces, institutions, resources,
events, and ideas that may be shared,
and encourage such sharing. The
practice should also facilitate the
process of negotiating and making
meaning about a community.
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Community journalism - Measurement
1
This is because community journalism is
on a scale on which data is shown simply
in order of magnitude since there is no
standard of measurement of differences.
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Community journalism - Measurement
1
In addition, numerous studies in this
analysis suggest that any scale
measure of community journalism
should accommodate the impact of
the community’s power structure on
news decisions and should address
the need for inclusion of less powerful
voices.
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Marketing management - Reporting, measurement, feedback and control systems
Marketing management employs a
variety of metrics to measure
progress against objectives. It is the
responsibility of marketing managers
– in the marketing department or
elsewhere – to ensure that the
execution of marketing programs
achieves the desired objectives and
does so in a cost-efficient manner.
1
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Marketing management - Reporting, measurement, feedback and control
systems
1
Marketing management therefore often
makes use of various organizational
control systems, such as sales forecasts,
sales force and reseller incentive
programs, sales force management
systems, and customer relationship
management tools (CRM)
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Gender - Measurement of gender identity
Early gender identity research
hypothesized a single bipolar dimension of
masculinity-femininity—that is masculinity
and femininity were opposites on one
continuum
1
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Gender - Measurement of gender identity
Two instruments incorporating the
multidimensional of masculinity and
femininity have dominated gender identity
research: The Bem Sex Role Inventory
(BSRI) and the Personal Attributes
Questionnaire (PAQ)
1
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Diode - Temperature measurements
1
A diode can be used as a temperature
measuring device, since the forward
voltage drop across the diode depends
on temperature, as in a silicon bandgap
temperature sensor
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Cultural assimilation - Core measurements to immigrant assimilation
Researchers have assessed that
assimilation exists among immigrants
because assimilation can be measured on
four primary benchmarks. These core
measurable aspects of immigrant
assimilation that were formulated to study
European immigrants to the United States
are still the starting points for
understanding immigrant assimilation.
These measurable aspects of assimilation
1
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Cultural assimilation - Core measurements to immigrant assimilation
1
Socioeconomic status is defined by
educational attainment, occupation,
and income. By measuring
socioeconomic status researchers
want to find out if immigrants
eventually catch up to native-born
people in terms of human capital
characteristics.
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Cultural assimilation - Core measurements to immigrant assimilation
Spatial concentration is defined by
geography or residential patterns. The
spatial residential model (based on
theories of Park) proposed by Massey
states that increasing socioeconomic
attainment, longer residence in the U.S,
and higher generational status lead to
decreasing residential concentration for a
particular ethnic group.
1
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Cultural assimilation - Core measurements to immigrant assimilation
Language attainment is defined as the
ability to speak English and the loss of the
individual's mother tongue. The threegeneration model of language assimilation
states that the first generation makes
some progress in language assimilation
but remains dominant in their native
tongue, the second generation is bilingual,
and the third-generation speaks only
English.
1
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Cultural assimilation - Core measurements to immigrant assimilation
1
Intermarriage is defined by
race or ethnicity and
occasionally by generation
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Positive psychology - Happiness Measurement
1
Some policy analysts, citing positive
psychology, propose replacing the
Gross domestic product with Gross
national happiness as the predominant
measure of a nation's success.
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Positive psychology - Happiness Measurement
In the 1970s, pioneering "happiness
researcher" Michael W. Fordyce
statistically related personal attributes
to subjective well-being. His results,
published in Social Indicators
Research, rank in the journal's top 2.4%
most-cited articles.
1
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Synthetic biology - Measurement
1
Microscopy and flow cytometry are examples
of useful measurement technologies.
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False advertising - Manipulation of measurement units and standards
Sellers may manipulate standards to mean
something different than their widely understood
meaning
1
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False advertising - Manipulation of measurement units and standards
1
In another example, in the US, car engine
displacement was changed from US
customary units to metric, during the
1980s, to disguise that they were
dramatically downsized. This was done
while most other automotive
measurements remained in US customary
units.
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False advertising - Manipulation of measurement units and standards
In a more blatant example, Fretter
Appliance stores claimed "I’ll give you five
pounds of coffee if I can’t beat your best
deal". While initially they gave away that
quantity, they later redefined them as
"Fretter pounds", which, unsurprisingly,
were much lighter than standard pounds.
1
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False advertising - Manipulation of measurement units and standards
1
In an example of standards manipulation,
US car rental agencies routinely refer to
cars as one class larger than they are, as
defined by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency
standards. For example, they would refer
to a car as "full-sized", while the EPA
would call the same car "mid-sized".
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Economic inequality - Measurement of inequality in the modern world
1
A study entitled "Divided we Stand:
Why Inequality Keeps Rising” by the
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
reported its conclusions on the
causes, consequences and policy
implications for the ongoing
intensification of the extremes of
wealth and poverty across its 22
member nations (OECD 2011-12-05).
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Economic inequality - Measurement of inequality in the modern world
1
"Income inequality in OECD countries is at
its highest level for the past half century.
The average income of the richest 10% of
the population is about nine times that of
the poorest 10% across the OECD, up
from seven times 25 years ago."
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Economic inequality - Measurement of inequality in the modern world
1
In the United States inequality has increased further
from already high levels.
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Economic inequality - Measurement of inequality in the modern world
1
"Other traditionally more egalitarian
countries, such as Germany, Denmark
and Sweden, have seen the gap
between rich and poor expand from 5
to 1 in the 1980s, to 6 to 1 today."
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Economic inequality - Measurement of inequality in the modern world
A study by the World Institute for
Development Economics Research at
United Nations University reports that
the richest 1% of adults alone owned
40% of global assets in the year 2000
1
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Economic inequality - Measurement of inequality in the modern world
Over the two decades prior to the
onset of the global financial crisis,
real disposable household incomes
increased an average of 1.7% a year in
its 34 member countries
1
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Economic inequality - Measurement of inequality in the modern world
1
Although a discussion exists about the
recent trends in global inequality, the
issue is anything but clear, and this
holds true for both the overall global
inequality trend and for its betweencountry and within-country
components. The existing data and
estimates suggest a large increase in
international (and more generally intermacroregional) component between
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Goal-oriented - Measurement concerns and current methods
One of the more vocal criticisms of
the GO literature reflects ambiguities
that result from methodological
inconsistencies in measurement
1
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Goal-oriented - Measurement concerns and current methods
1
Therefore, a lack of consistency in the
measurement of GO makes it difficult to
ascertain what the scales and measures
are actually assessing.
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Goal-oriented - Measurement concerns and current methods
1
Despite these concerns there are three dominant
measures within the literature
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Digital microscope - 2D measurement
1
Most of the high-end digital microscope
systems have the ability to measure
samples in 2D. The measurements are
done onscreen by measuring the distance
from pixel to pixel. This allows for length,
width, diagonal, and circle measurements
as well as much more. Some systems are
even capable of counting particles.
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Digital microscope - 3D measurement
3D measurement is achieved with a
digital microscope by image stacking.
Using a step motor, the system takes
images from the lowest focal plane in
the field of view to the highest focal
plane. Then it reconstructs theses
images into a 3D model based on
contrast to give a 3D color image of the
sample. From these 3D model
measurements can be made, but their
1
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Mathematical psychology - Measurement theory
1
Theory of conjoint measurement
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Creativity - Other approaches to measurement
Howard Gruber insisted on a casestudy approach that expresses the
existential and unique quality of the
creator. Creativity to Gruber was the
product of purposeful work and this
work could be described only as a
confluence of forces in the specifics of
the case.
1
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Marketing operations - Marketing Performance Measurement
Marketing Performance
Measurement should be a logical
extension of the Planning and
Budgeting exercise that happens
before each fiscal year. The goals that
are set should be measurable and
personal. Every person in the
Marketing organization should know
what they have to do to help the
function, and the company, achieve its
1
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Marketing operations - Marketing Performance Measurement
1
Quarterly Operations Reviews represent
another good way to monitor Marketing’s
progress towards its annual goals. At a
Quarterly Operations Review, a CMO
typically has direct reports present on
achievements relative to the goals that
were set. This is a good opportunity to
update goals based on information gained
during the quarter that has just ended. It is
also a good way for Marketing leaders to
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Openness to experience - Measurement
Openness to experience is usually
assessed with self-report measures,
although peer-reports and third-party
observation are also used. Self-report
measures are either lexical or based on
statements. Which measure of either type
is used is determined by an assessment of
psychometric properties and the time and
space constraints of the research being
undertaken
1
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Openness to experience - Measurement
1
Lexical measures use individual adjectives
that reflect openness to experience traits,
such as creative, intellectual, artistic,
philosophical, deep
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Openness to experience - Measurement
1
Statement measures tend to comprise
more words, and hence take up more
research instrument space, than lexical
measures
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Openness to experience - Measurement
1
According to research by Sam Gosling, it
is possible to assess openness by
examining people's homes and work
spaces. Individuals who are highly open to
experience tend to have distinctive and
unconventional decorations. They are also
likely to have books on a wide variety of
topics, a diverse music collection, and
works of art on display.
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Software construction - Construction measurement
Numerous construction activities and
artifacts can be measured, including code
developed, code modified, code reused,
code destroyed, code complexity, code
inspection statistics, fault-fix and fault-find
rates, effort, and scheduling. These
measurements can be useful for purposes
of managing construction, ensuring quality
during construction, improving the
construction process, as well as for other
1
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Shared services - Benchmarking and measurement
In establishing and running a shared
service, benchmarking and measurement
is considered by some as a necessity.
Benchmarking is the comparison of the
service provision usually against best in
class. The measurement occurs by using
agreed key performance indicators (KPIs).
Although the amount of KPIs chosen
differs greatly it is generally accepted that
fewer than 10 carefully chosen KPIs will
1
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Shared services - Benchmarking and measurement
1
Organizations do attempt to define benchmarks for
processes and business operations.
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Shared services - Benchmarking and measurement
1
Benchmarking can be used
to achieve different goals
including:
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Shared services - Benchmarking and measurement
1. To drive performance
improvements using benchmarks as a
means for setting performance targets
that are met either through
incremental performance
improvements or transformational
change.
1
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Shared services - Benchmarking and measurement
1
- Strategic: with a focus on a long
term horizon; and
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Shared services - Benchmarking and measurement
1
- Tactical: with a focus on
the short and medium
term
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Shared services - Benchmarking and measurement
2. To focus an organization on
becoming world class with processes
that deliver the highest levels of
performance that are better than those
of its peer group.
1
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Network analyzer (electrical) - S-parameter measurement with vector network
analyzer
1
The diagram shows the essential parts
of a typical 2-port vector network
analyzer (VNA). The two ports of the
device under test (DUT) are denoted
port 1 (P1) and port 2 (P2). The test
port connectors provided on the VNA
itself are precision types which will
normally have to be extended and
connected to P1 and P2 using
precision cables 1 and 2, PC1 and PC2
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Network analyzer (electrical) - S-parameter measurement with vector network
analyzer
The instantaneous value of phase
includes both the temporal and spatial
parts, but the former is removed by
virtue of using 2 test channels, one as
a reference and the other for
measurement
1
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Network analyzer (electrical) - Noise figure measurements
The three major manufacturers of
VNAs, Agilent, Anritsu, and Rohde &
Schwarz, all produce models which
permit the use of noise figure
measurements. The vector error
correction permits higher accuracy
than is possible with other forms of
commercial noise figure meters.
1
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Usability - Empirical measurement
1
The emphasis of empirical measurement
is on measurement, both informal and
formal, which can be carried out through a
variety of evaluation methods.
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Traceability - Measurement
1
The term "measurement traceability"
is used to refer to an unbroken chain
of comparisons relating an
instrument's measurements to a
known standard. Calibration to a
traceable standard can be used to
determine an instrument's bias,
precision, and accuracy. It may also
be used to show a chain of custody from current interpretation of
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Traceability - Measurement
As defined by NIST, "Traceability of
measurement requires the establishment
of an unbroken chain of comparisons to
stated references each with a stated
uncertainty."
1
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Software metric - Common software measurements
Common software
measurements include:
1
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Software metric - Common software measurements
1
Instruction path length
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Software metric - Common software measurements
1
Number of classes and
interfaces
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Software metric - Common software measurements
1
Program execution time
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Software metric - Common software measurements
Function Points and Automated Function
Points, an Object Management Group standard
1
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Software metric - Common software measurements
1
CISQ automated quality
characteristics measures
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Software quality - Measurement
1
Although the concepts presented in this
section are applicable to both structural
and functional software quality,
measurement of the latter is essentially
performed through testing [see Software
Testing].
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Bill Curtis - Software measurement
He next developed a global software
productivity and quality measurement
system while at ITT's Programming
Technology Center which allowed
established corporate baselines across
different business lines in one of the
world's largest corporate conglomerates
1
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Bill Curtis - Software measurement
1
In 2009 Dr
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Level of measurement
1
In statistics and quantitative research
methodology, levels of measurement or
scales of measure are types of data that
arise in the theory of scale types
developed by the psychologist Stanley
Smith Stevens. The types are nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
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Level of measurement - Typology
In that article, Stevens claimed that all
measurement in science was conducted
using four different types of scales that he
called "nominal," "ordinal," "interval," and
"ratio," unifying both "qualitative" (which
are described by his "nominal" type) and
"quantitative" (to a different degree, all the
rest of his scales)
1
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Level of measurement - Typology
“ S. S. Stevens (1946, 1951, 1975)
claimed that what counted was having an
interval or ratio scale. Subsequent
research has given meaning to this
assertion, but given his attempts to invoke
scale type ideas it is doubtful if he
understood it himself . . . no measurement
theorist I know accepts Stevens' broad
definition of measurement . . . in our view,
the only sensible meaning for 'rule' is
1
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Level of measurement - Nominal scale
1
The nominal type, sometimes also called
the qualitative type, differentiates between
items or subjects based only on their
names or (meta-)categories and other
qualitative classifications they belong to.
Examples include gender, nationality,
ethnicity, language, genre, style, biological
species, and form.
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Level of measurement - Central tendency
The median, i.e. middle-ranked, item is
allowed as the measure of central
tendency; however, the mean (or average)
as the measure of central tendency is not
allowed. The mode is allowed.
1
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Level of measurement - Central tendency
In 1946, Stevens observed that
psychological measurement, such as
measurement of opinions, usually
operates on ordinal scales; thus
means and standard deviations have
no validity, but they can be used to get
ideas for how to improve
operationalization of variables used in
questionnaires
1
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Level of measurement - Ordinal scale
1
The ordinal type allows for rank order (1st,
2nd, 3rd, etc.) by which data can be
sorted, but still does not allow for relative
degree of difference between them
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Level of measurement - Interval scale
1
The interval type allows for the degree of difference
between items, but not the ratio between them
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Level of measurement - Central tendency and statistical dispersion
1
The mode, median, and arithmetic
mean are allowed to measure central
tendency of interval variables, while
measures of statistical dispersion
include range and standard deviation
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Level of measurement - Ratio scale
1
Most measurement in the physical sciences and
engineering is done on ratio scales
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Level of measurement - Central tendency and statistical dispersion
The geometric mean and the
harmonic mean are allowed to
measure the central tendency, in
addition to the mode, median, and
arithmetic mean. The studentized
range and the coefficient of variation
are allowed to measure statistical
dispersion. All statistical measures
are allowed because all necessary
mathematical operations are defined
1
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Level of measurement - Central tendency and statistical dispersion
1
(data values) Dichotomous:
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Level of measurement - Central tendency and statistical dispersion
1
(American/Chinese/
etc) Dichotomous:
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Level of measurement - Debate on typology
While Stevens' typology is widely
adopted, it is still being challenged by
other theoreticians, particularly in the
cases of the nominal and ordinal types
(Michell, 1986).
1
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Level of measurement - Debate on typology
1
However, so-called nominal measurement
involves arbitrary assignment, and the
"permissible transformation" is any
number for any other
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Level of measurement - Debate on typology
1
Statistical analysis software such as SPSS
requires the user to select the appropriate
measurement class for each variable
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Level of measurement - Debate on typology
L. L. Thurstone made progress toward
developing a justification for obtaining the
interval type, based on the law of
comparative judgment. A common
application of the law is the analytic
hierarchy process. Further progress was
made by Georg Rasch (1960), who
developed the probabilistic Rasch model
that provides a theoretical basis and
justification for obtaining interval-level
1
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Level of measurement - Debate on typology
1
The extended levels of measurement are rarely
used outside of academic geography.
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Level of measurement - Scale types and Stevens' "operational theory of measurement"
Essentially, the operational theory of
measurement was a reaction to the
conclusions of a committee established in
1932 by the British Association for the
Advancement of Science to investigate the
possibility of genuine scientific
measurement in the psychological and
behavioral sciences
1
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Level of measurement - Scale types and Stevens' "operational theory of
measurement"
1
“ …any law purporting to express a
quantitative relation between
sensation intensity and stimulus
intensity is not merely false but is in
fact meaningless unless and until a
meaning can be given to the concept
of addition as applied to sensation. ”
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Level of measurement - Scale types and Stevens' "operational theory of
measurement"
However, Stevens' reaction was not to
conduct experiments to test for the
presence of additive structure in
sensations, but instead to render the
conclusions of the Ferguson committee
null and void by proposing a new theory of
measurement:
1
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Level of measurement - Scale types and Stevens' "operational theory of
measurement"
1
“ Paraphrasing N.R. Campbell (Final
Report, p.340), we may say that
measurement, in the broadest sense,
is defined as the assignment of
numerals to objects and events
according to rules (Stevens, 1946,
p.677). ”
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Level of measurement - Scale types and Stevens' "operational theory of
measurement"
1
In Stevens' definition, for example, it
is the use of a tape measure that
defines length (the object of
measurement) as being measurable
(and so by implication quantitative)
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Level of measurement - Scale types and Stevens' "operational theory of
measurement"
The Canadian measurement theorist
William Rozeboom (1966) was an early
and trenchant critic of Stevens' theory of
scale types.
1
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Level of measurement - Notes
1
Jump up ^ Stevens, S. S. (1946). "On the
Theory of Scales of Measurement".
Science 103 (2684): 677–680.
Bibcode:1946Sci...103..677S.
doi:10.1126/science.103.2684.677. PMID
17750512.
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Level of measurement - Notes
Jump up ^ *Lord, Frederic M.; Novick,
Melvin R.; Allan Birnbaum (1968).
Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores.
Reading (MA): Addison-Wesley. p. 21.
LCCN 68-11394. Lay summary (24 June
2013). "Although, formally speaking,
interval measurement can always be
obtained by specification, such
specification is theoretically meaningful
only if it is implied by the theory and model
1
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Level of measurement - Notes
1
Jump up ^ Sheskin, David J
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Level of measurement - Notes
Jump up ^ Mussen, Paul Henry (1973).
Psychology: An Introduction. Lexington
(MA): Heath. p. 363. ISBN 0-669-61382-7.
"The I.Q. is essentially a rank; there are no
true "units" of intellectual ability."
1
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Level of measurement - Notes
Jump up ^ Truch, Steve (1993). The
WISC-III Companion: A Guide to
Interpretation and Educational
Intervention. Austin (TX): Pro-Ed. p. 35.
ISBN 0-89079-585-1. "An IQ score is not
an equal-interval score, as is evident in
Table A.4 in the WISC-III manual."
1
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Level of measurement - Notes
1
"When we come to quantities like IQ
or g, as we are presently able to
measure them, we shall see later that
we have an even lower level of
measurement—an ordinal level
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Level of measurement - Notes
Jump up ^ Eysenck, Hans (1998).
Intelligence: A New Look. New Brunswick
(NJ): Transaction Publishers. pp. 24–25.
ISBN 1-56000-360-X. "Ideally, a scale of
measurement should have a true zeropoint and identical intervals. . . . Scales of
hardness lack these advantages, and so
does IQ. There is no absolute zero, and a
10-point difference may carry different
meanings at different points of the scale."
1
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Level of measurement - Notes
1
Jump up ^ Mackintosh, N. J. (1998). IQ
and Human Intelligence. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. pp. 30–31.
ISBN 0-19-852367-X. "In the jargon of
psychological measurement theory,
IQ is an ordinal scale, where we are
simply rank-ordering people. . . . It is
not even appropriate to claim that the
10-point difference between IQ scores
of 110 and 100 is the same as the 10https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Level of measurement - Notes
1
Jump up ^ Velleman, Paul F.; Wilkinson,
Leland (1993). "Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval, and Ratio Typologies Are
Misleading". The American Statistician
(American Statistical Association) 47
(1): 65–72. doi:10.2307/2684788. JSTOR
2684788.
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Level of measurement - Notes
1
Jump up ^ Chrisman, Nicholas R.
(1998). Rethinking Levels of
Measurement for Cartography.
Cartography and Geographic
Information Science, vol. 25 (4), pp.
231-242
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Exposure assessment - Measurement of exposure
To quantify the exposure of particular
individuals or populations two approaches
are used, primarily based on practical
considerations:
1
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Exposure assessment - Measurement of exposure
1
The respondents often record their
daily activities and locations during
the measurement of the pollutants to
identify the potential sources,
microenvironments, or human
activities contributing the pollutant
exposure
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Exposure assessment - Measurement of exposure
1
Point of contact - Continuous measure of the
contaminant reaching the target through all
routes.
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Exposure assessment - Measurement of exposure
Biological Monitoring - is another
approach to measuring exposure. This
measures the amount of a pollutant
within the body in various tissue
media such adipose tissue, bone, or
urine. Biological monitoring
measures the body burden of a
pollutant but not the source from
whence it came. The substance
measured may be either the
1
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Exposure assessment - Measurement of exposure
1
Biomarkers of Exposure Assessment Measure of the contaminant or other
proportionally related variable in the
body.
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Exposure assessment - Measurement of exposure
1
The indirect approach measures the
pollutant concentrations in various
locations or during specific human
activities to predict the exposure
distributions within a population
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Exposure assessment - Measurement of exposure
1
In general, direct methods tend to be more
accurate but more costly in terms of
resources and demands placed on the
subject being measured and may not
always be feasible, especially for a
population exposure study
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Indoor positioning system - Inertial measurements
1
Other approaches for positioning of
pedestrians propose an inertial
measurement unit carried by the
pedestrian either by measuring steps
indirectly (step counting) or in a foot
mounted approach, sometimes
referring to maps or other additional
sensors to constrain the inherent
sensor drift encountered with inertial
navigation
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Quantum decoherence - Measurement
The weighting of each outcome in the
mixture in case of measurement is exactly
that which gives the probabilities of the
different results of such a measurement.
1
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Quantum decoherence - Measurement
1
To present a solution to the measurement
problem in most interpretations of
quantum mechanics, decoherence must
be supplied with some nontrivial
interpretational considerations (as for
example Wojciech Zurek tends to do in his
Existential interpretation)
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Quantum decoherence - Quantitative measurement
1
The decoherence rate depends on a
number of factors including
temperature, or uncertainty in
position, and many experiments have
tried to measure it depending on the
external environment.
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Quantum decoherence - Quantitative measurement
1
The collapse of a quantum superposition
into a single definite state was
quantitatively measured for the first time
by Serge Haroche and his co-workers at
the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in
1996
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Quantum decoherence - Quantitative measurement
1
Haroche and his colleagues measured
the resulting decoherence via
correlations between the energy
levels of pairs of atoms sent through
the cavity with various time delays
between the atoms.
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Spin (physics) - Compatibility of spin measurements
Since the Pauli matrices do not
commute, measurements of spin
along the different axes are
incompatible. This means that if, for
example, we know the spin along the
x-axis, and we then measure the spin
along the y-axis, we have invalidated
our previous knowledge of the x-axis
spin. This can be seen from the
property of the eigenvectors (i.e.
1
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Spin (physics) - Compatibility of spin measurements
1
This implies that the original measurement
of the spin along the x-axis is no longer
valid, since the spin along the x-axis will
now be measured to have either
eigenvalue with equal probability.
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Blood pressure - Measurement
1
Arterial pressure is most commonly
measured via a sphygmomanometer,
which historically used the height of a
column of mercury to reflect the
circulating pressure. Blood pressure
values are generally reported in
millimetres of mercury (mmHg),
though aneroid and electronic devices
do not contain mercury.
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Blood pressure - Measurement
1
For each heartbeat, blood pressure varies
between systolic and diastolic pressures
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Blood pressure - Measurement
Systolic and diastolic arterial blood
pressures are not static but undergo
natural variations from one heartbeat to
another and throughout the day (in a
circadian rhythm)
1
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Blood pressure - Measurement
1
Measuring pressure invasively, by
penetrating the arterial wall to take
the measurement, is much less
common and usually restricted to a
hospital setting.
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Odor - Measurement
1
Different aspects of odor can be measured
through a number of quantitative methods,
such as assessing concentration or
apparent intensity.
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Odor - Measurement
1
Initial entry into a room provides the
most accurate sensing of smell,
before habituation begins to change
perception of odor.
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Odor - Measurement
1
Sensation of odor has 4 properties related
to threshold and tolerance: odor
concentration, odor intensity, odor quality,
and hedonic tone.
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Gene expression - Measurement
Measuring gene expression is an
important part of many life sciences the ability to quantify the level at
which a particular gene is expressed
within a cell, tissue or organism can
give a huge amount of information.
For example measuring gene
expression can:
1
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Gene expression - Measurement
Determine an
individual's
susceptibility to cancer
(oncogene expression)
1
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Gene expression - Measurement
1
Find if a bacterium
is resistant to
penicillin (betalactamase
expression).
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Gene expression - Measurement
1
Ideally measurement of expression is
done by detecting the final gene
product (for many genes this is the
protein) however it is often easier to
detect one of the precursors, typically
mRNA, and infer gene expression
level.
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Metabolic engineering - Experimental measurements
To measure reaction fluxes, carbon flux
measurements are made using carbon-13 isotopic
labeling
1
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Second - Modern measurements
1
As a unit of time, the second (meaning the
second division by 60 of an hour) entered
English in the late 16th century, about a
hundred years before it was measured
accurately. Those who wrote in Latin,
including scientists like Bacon, Tycho and
Kepler, used the Latin term secunda with
the same meaning as far back as the
1200s.
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Second - Modern measurements
1
In 1832, Gauss proposed using the
second as the base unit of time in his
millimeter-milligram-second system of
units
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Second - Modern measurements
In 1956, the second was redefined in
terms of a year (the period of the Earth's
revolution around the Sun) for a particular
epoch because, by then, it had become
recognized that the Earth's rotation on its
own axis was not sufficiently uniform as a
standard of time. The Earth's motion was
described in Newcomb's Tables of the Sun
(1895), which provided a formula for
estimating the motion of the Sun relative to
1
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Second - Modern measurements
1
The second was thus
defined as:
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Second - Modern measurements
1
the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year
for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.
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Second - Modern measurements
1
This definition was ratified by the Eleventh
General Conference on Weights and
Measures in 1960, which also established
the International System of Units.
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Second - Modern measurements
1
The tropical year in the 1960 definition
was not measured but calculated from
a formula describing a mean tropical
year that decreased linearly over time,
hence the curious reference to a
specific instantaneous tropical year
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Second - Modern measurements
1
Thus, the 1960 SI definition abandoned
any explicit relationship between the
scientific second and the length of a day,
as most people understand the term. With
the development of the atomic clock in the
early 1960s, it was decided to use atomic
time as the basis of the definition of the
second, rather than the revolution of the
Earth around the Sun.
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Second - Modern measurements
Using a common-view measurement
method based on the received signals
from radio station WWV, they determined
the orbital motion of the Moon about the
Earth, from which the apparent motion of
the Sun could be inferred, in terms of time
as measured by an atomic clock
1
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Second - Modern measurements
1
the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of
the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels
of the ground state of the caesium-133
atom.
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Second - Modern measurements
1
This SI second, referred to atomic time,
was later verified to be in agreement,
within 1 part in 1010, with the second of
ephemeris time as determined from lunar
observations. (Nevertheless, this SI
second was already, when adopted, a little
shorter than the then-current value of the
second of mean solar time.)
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Second - Modern measurements
1
During the 1970s it was realized that
gravitational time dilation caused the
second produced by each atomic
clock to differ depending on its
altitude. A uniform second was
produced by correcting the output of
each atomic clock to mean sea level
(the rotating geoid), lengthening the
second by about 1×10−10. This
correction was applied at the
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Second - Modern measurements
1
The definition of the second was later
refined at the 1997 meeting of the
BIPM to include the statement
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Second - Modern measurements
1
This definition refers to a
caesium atom at rest at a
temperature of 0 K.
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Second - Modern measurements
1
The revised definition seems to imply
that the ideal atomic clock contains a
single caesium atom at rest emitting a
single frequency. In practice,
however, the definition means that
high-precision realizations of the
second should compensate for the
effects of the ambient temperature
(black-body radiation) within which
atomic clocks operate, and
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
High-field high-frequency EPR
measurements are sometimes needed to
detect subtle spectroscopic details
1
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
1
The EPR waveband is stipulated by the
frequency or wavelength of a
spectrometer's microwave source (see
Table).
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
1
Measurements at > 40 GHz, in the millimeter
wavelength region, offer the following
advantages:
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
1
EPR spectra are simplified due to the reduction of
second-order effects at high fields.
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
1
The informativity and precision of pulse
methods, e.g., ENDOR also increase at
high magnetic fields.
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
1
Accessibility of spin systems with
larger zero-field splitting due to the
larger microwave quantum energy h.
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
The higher spectral resolution over gfactor, which increases with irradiation
frequency and external magnetic field B0.
This is used to investigate the structure,
polarity, and dynamics of radical
microenvironments in spin-modified
organic and biological systems through the
spin label and probe method. The figure
shows how spectral resolution improves
with increasing frequency.
1
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
Saturation of paramagnetic centers
occurs at a comparatively low
microwave polarizing field B1, due to
the exponential dependence of the
number of excited spins on the
radiation frequency . This effect can be
successfully used to study the
relaxation and dynamics of
paramagnetic centers as well as of
superslow motion in the systems under
1
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
The cross-relaxation of paramagnetic
centers decreases dramatically at high
magnetic fields, making it easier to obtain
more-precise and more-complete
information about the system under study.
1
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Electron paramagnetic resonance - High-field high-frequency measurements
1
This was demonstrated experimentally in
the study of various biological, polymeric
and model systems at D-band EPR.
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Consciousness - Measurement
Experimental research on
consciousness presents special
difficulties, due to the lack of a
universally accepted operational
definition
1
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Consciousness - Measurement
1
Verbal report is widely considered to be
the most reliable indicator of
consciousness, but it raises a number of
issues
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Consciousness - Measurement
Although verbal report is in practice the
gold standard for ascribing consciousness,
it is not the only possible criterion
1
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Consciousness - Measurement
1
Another approach applies specifically to
the study of self-awareness, that is, the
ability to distinguish oneself from others
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National Bureau of Standards - Measurements and standards
As part of its mission, NIST supplies
industry, academia, government, and other
users with over 1,300 (SRMs). These
artifacts are certified as having specific
characteristics or component content,
used as calibration standards for
measuring equipment and procedures,
quality control benchmarks for industrial
processes, and experimental control
samples.
1
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Affect (psychology) - Psychometric measurement of affect
1
Affect has been found across cultures to
comprise both positive and negative
dimensions
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Application Response Measurement
1
'Application Response Measurement'
('ARM') is an open standard published
by the Open Group for monitoring and
diagnosing performance bottlenecks
within complex enterprise applications
that use loose coupling|looselycoupled designs or service-oriented
architectures.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Application Response Measurement
1
It includes an API for C (programming
language)|C and Java (programming
language)|Java that allows timing
information associated with each step
in processing a transaction to be
logged to a remote server for later
analysis.
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Application Response Measurement - History
1
Version 1 of ARM was developed jointly
by Tivoli Software and Hewlett Packard
in 1996. Version 2 was developed by an
industry partnership (the ARM Working
Group) and became available in
December 1997 as an open standard
approved by the Open Group. ARM 4.0
was released in 2003 and revised in
2004.
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
1
Current application design tends to be
more complex and distributed over
networks. This leads to new challenges
in today's development and
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
Within distributed applications it is not
easy to estimate if the application
performs well. The following issues help in
the
1
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
1
evaluation of distributed
applications:
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
1
* Are business transactions succeeding and, if not,
what is the cause of failure?
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
1
* Where are the bottlenecks,
which sub-transaction could
cause a bottleneck?
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
1
* Which and how many transactions
are executed in an application?
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
1
* How to tune an application
or its environment to
perform better?
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Application Response Measurement - Introduction
ARM helps answer these questions. It's
important to mention that the ARM benefits
as they are defined here are now just a
subset of the Application Performance
Management space.
1
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Application Response Measurement - Approach
1
The main approach of using
ARM is:
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Application Response Measurement - Approach
1
# Define business as
well as technical
transactions which
are of interest.
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Application Response Measurement - Approach
# Insert calls into the application to the ARM
interface to measure these defined transactions.
1
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Application Response Measurement - Approach
1
# Deploy the instrumented application in their
normal environment with an installed ARM agent.
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Application Response Measurement - Approach
1
# The used ARM implementation now provides the
transaction measurements of interest.
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Application Response Measurement - Concepts
ARM defines the
following concepts to
provide the described
functionality.
1
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Application
1
Complex distributed applications usually
consist of many different single
applications (processes). In order to be
able to understand the relationship
between all single applications the concept
of an ARM application is introduced with
version 4.0 of the ARM standard. Each
ARM transaction is executed exactly within
one ARM application.
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Transaction
Additionally special metrics or
context properties can be associated
with a transaction measurement.
1
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Application Response Measurement - ARM System Address
1
Uniquely defines a host
by its name, IP address
or other unique
information.
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Correlator
ARM correlators are used to express a
correlation between two ARM transactions
1
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Correlator
1
ARM 4.1 defines asynchronous relationships to
support data flow driven architectures.
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Metric
1
ARM Metrics can be used to get more
information about the execution of a
transaction. ARM defines a set of
metric types for different purposes
such as a counter, a gauge or just a
numeric value.
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Properties
Properties are a set of so-called
name/value pair strings which qualifies an
ARM transaction or an ARM application
beyond the
1
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Properties
1
basic definition of these entities and allows
to associate additional context information
to each transaction measurement.
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Application Response Measurement - ARM User
1
Defines a name of a
user on behalf an
transaction
measurement was
executed.
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Instrumented Applications
1
The following applications are
already instrumented with ARM
calls:
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Instrumented Applications
1
* Apache HTTP Server using the ARM 4.0 Modul
mod_arm4. All HTTP requests are measured using
ARM.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Application Response Measurement - ARM Instrumented Applications
* Mozilla Firefox using the
ARM 4.0 XPCOM extension
npARM.
1
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Instrumented Applications
1
* IBM WebSphere Application server.
Various requests like URI, JavaServer
Pages|JSP and others are measured
using ARM.
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Instrumented Applications
* IBM DB2 Database Server.
http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/es
erver/v1r2/topic/ewlminfo/eicaaarmdb2.ht
ml
1
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Application Response Measurement - ARM Instrumented Applications
1
* SAS (software) supports ARM 2.0 a
long time. With version 9.2 of its
release it supports also ARM 4.0.
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Quantum measurement
The framework of quantum mechanics
requires a careful definition of
'measurement'. The issue of
measurement lies at the heart of the
problem of the interpretation of quantum
mechanics, for which there is currently no
consensus.
1
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Quantum measurement - Measurement from a practical point of view
In spite of considerable philosophical
differences, different views of
measurement almost universally agree on
the practical question of what results from
a routine quantum-physics laboratory
measurement
1
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Quantum measurement - Qualitative overview
1
In classical mechanics, a simple system
consisting of only one single particle is
fully described by the position \vec (t) and
momentum \vec (t) of the particle
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Quantum measurement - Qualitative overview
1
If the preparation is repeated, which does
not put the system into the previous
eigenstate, subsequent measurements will
likely lead to different result
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Quantum measurement - Qualitative overview
The values obtained after the
measurement is in general described by a
probability distribution, which is
determined by an average (or expectation)
of the measurement operator based on the
quantum state of the prepared system.
The probability distribution is either
continuous random variable|continuous
(such as position and momentum) or
discrete probability distribution|discrete
1
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Quantum measurement - Qualitative overview
1
A significant element in this disagreement
is the issue of wavefunction
collapse|collapse of the wavefunction
associated with the change in state
following measurement
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Quantum measurement - Quantitative details
The mathematical relationship
between the quantum state and the
probability distribution is, again,
widely accepted among physicists,
and has been experimentally
confirmed countless times. This
section summarizes this relationship,
which is stated in terms of the
mathematical formulation of quantum
mechanics.
1
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
1
It is a postulate of quantum mechanics
that all measurements have an
associated linear operator|operator
(called an 'observable operator', or just
an 'observable'), with the following
properties:
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
#The observable is a Hermitian
operator|Hermitian (self-adjoint
operator|self-adjoint) linear
operator|operator mapping a Hilbert
space (namely, the state space
(physics)|state space, which consists
of all possible quantum states) into
itself.
1
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
1
#Thus, the observable's eigenvectors
(called an eigenbasis) form an
orthonormal basis (linear algebra)|basis
that linear span|span the state space in
which that observable exists. Any
quantum state can be represented as a
quantum superposition|superposition of
the eigenstates of an observable.
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
1
#Hermitian operators' eigenvalues are real
number|real. The possible outcomes of a
measurement are precisely the
eigenvalues of the given observable.
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
1
#For each eigenvalue there are one or
more corresponding eigenvectors
(eigenstates). A measurement results in
the system being in the eigenstate
corresponding to the eigenvalue result
of the measurement. If the eigenvalue
determined from the measurement
corresponds to more than one
eigenstate (degeneracy), instead of
being in a definite state, the system is
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
* The Hamiltonian (quantum
mechanics)|Hamiltonian operator \hat,
which represents the total energy of the
system. In nonrelativistic quantum
mechanics the Hamiltonian (quantum
mechanics)|nonrelativistic Hamiltonian
operator is given by = \hat T + \hat V =
+ V( \hat x ) .
1
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
1
* The momentum operator is given by =
-i\hbar (in the Position and momentum
space#Functions and operators in position
space|position basis), or = p (in the
Position and momentum space#Functions
and operators in momentum
space|momentum basis).
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
1
* The position operator is given by =
x (in the position basis), or = i\hbar
(in the momentum basis).
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Quantum measurement - Measurable quantities (observables) as operators
1
In fact, they are related by an uncertainty
principle, as a direct consequence of the
wave-like nature of the quantum postulate,
and are associated with disturbance-dueto measurement due to the fundamental
contributions of Werner Heisenberg.
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Quantum measurement - Measurement probabilities and wavefunction
collapse
There are a few possible ways to
mathematically describe the measurement
process (both the probability distribution
and the collapsed wavefunction). The
most convenient description depends on
the spectrum of an operator|spectrum (i.e.,
set of eigenvalues) of the observable.
1
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Quantum measurement - Discrete, nondegenerate spectrum
Let \hat be an observable. By
assumption, \hat has discrete
eigenstates |1 \rang, |2 \rang, |3
\rang,... with corresponding distinct
eigenvalues O_1, O_2, O_3,.... That is,
the states are nondegenerate.
1
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Quantum measurement - Discrete, nondegenerate spectrum
where c_1,c_2,\ldots are complex
numbers in general. The eigenvalues
O_1, O_2, O_3,... are all possible
values of the measurement. The
corresponding probabilities are given
by
1
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Quantum measurement - Discrete, nondegenerate spectrum
Usually |\psi\rang is assumed to be
Normalisable wave function|normalized,
i.e. \lang \psi | \psi\rang=1. Therefore, the
expression above is reduced to
1
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Quantum measurement - Discrete, nondegenerate spectrum
1
If the result of the measurement is
O_n, then the system (after
measurement) is in pure state
|n\rang. That is,
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Quantum measurement - Discrete, nondegenerate spectrum
so any repeated
measurement of will
yield the same result
O_n.
1
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Quantum measurement - Discrete, nondegenerate spectrum
1
When there is a discontinuous change
in state due to a measurement that
involves discrete eigenvalues, that is
called wavefunction collapse. For
some, this is simply a description of a
reasonably accurate discontinuous
change in a mathematical
representation of physical reality; for
others, depending on philosophical
orientation, this is a fundamentally
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Quantum measurement - Continuous, nondegenerate spectrum
1
Let \hat be an observable. By assumption,
\hat has continuous eigenstate |x\rang,
with corresponding distinct eigenvalue x.
The eigenvalue forms a continuous
spectrum filling the interval
(mathematics)|interval (a,b).
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Quantum measurement - Continuous, nondegenerate spectrum
1
where c(x) is a complex-valued function.
The eigenvalue that fills up the interval
(a,b) is the possible value of
measurement. The corresponding
probability is described by a probability
function given by
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Quantum measurement - Continuous, nondegenerate spectrum
1
: \Pr( d x The process of collapse has
been studied in many experiments,
most famously in the double-slit
experiment. The wavefunction
collapse raises serious questions
regarding the measurement problem,
as well as questions of determinism
and Principle of locality|locality, as
demonstrated in the EPR paradox and
later in Greenberger–Horne–Zeilinger
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Quantum measurement - Continuous, nondegenerate spectrum
This new theoretical framework,
called quantum decoherence,
supersedes previous notions of
instantaneous collapse and provides
an explanation for the absence of
quantum coherence after
measurement
1
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
1
The von Neumann measurement scheme,
the ancestor of quantum decoherence
theory, describes measurements by taking
into account the measuring apparatus
which is also treated as a quantum object.
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
In order to make the measurement, the
system described by \scriptstyle |\psi\rang
needs to interact with the measuring
apparatus described by the quantum state
\scriptstyle |\phi\rang , so that the total
wave function before the measurement
and interaction with the second apparatus
is \scriptstyle |\psi\rang |\phi\rang
1
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
1
: |\psi\rang |\phi\rang \rightarrow \sum_n c_n
|\psi_n\rang |\phi_n\rang \quad \text
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
1
This density operator is interpreted by von
Neumann as describing an ensemble of
objects being after the measurement with
probability \scriptstyle |c_n|^2 in the state
\scriptstyle |\psi_n\rang
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
1
is often referred to as weak von Neumann
projection, the wave function collapse or
strong von Neumann projection
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
1
being thought to correspond to an additional
selection of a subensemble by means of
observation.
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
1
In case the measured observable has a
degenerate spectrum, weak von
Neumann projection is generalized to
Lüders projection
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Quantum measurement - von Neumann measurement scheme
1
in which the vectors \scriptstyle |\psi_\rang
for fixed n are the degenerate
eigenvectors of the measured observable.
For an arbitrary state described by a
density operator
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Quantum measurement - Measurements of the second kind
1
In a measurement of the second kind
the unitary evolution during the
interaction of object and measuring
instrument is supposed to be given by
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Quantum measurement - Measurements of the second kind
For instance, a photon counter,
detecting a photon by absorbing and
hence annihilating it, thus ideally
leaving the electromagnetic field in
the vacuum state rather than in the
state corresponding to the number of
detected photons; also the Stern–
Gerlach experiment would not
function at all if it really were a
measurement of the first kind.
1
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Quantum measurement - Decoherence in quantum measurement
1
One can also introduce the interaction
with the environment \scriptstyle
|e\rang , so that, in a measurement of
the first kind, after the interaction the
total wave function takes a form
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Quantum measurement - Decoherence in quantum measurement
Studying these processes provides
considerable insight into the measurement
problem by avoiding the arbitrary
boundary between the quantum and
classical worlds, though it does not explain
the presence of randomness in the choice
of final eigenstate
1
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Quantum measurement - Decoherence in quantum measurement
represents a set of states that do not
overlap in space, the appearance of
collapse can be generated by either the
Bohm interpretation or the many worlds
interpretation|Everett interpretation which
both deny the reality of wavefunction
collapse
1
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Quantum measurement - What physical interaction constitutes a
measurement?
Nevertheless, there remains less than
universal agreement among physicists on
some aspects of the question of what
constitutes a measurement.
1
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Quantum measurement - Does measurement actually determine the state?
But according to the many-worlds
interpretation, measurement determines
the state in a more restricted sense: In
other worlds, other measurement results
were obtained, and the other possible
states still exist.
1
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Quantum measurement - Is the measurement process random or
deterministic?
As described above, there is universal
agreement that quantum mechanics
appears random process|random, in the
sense that all experimental results yet
uncovered can be predicted and
understood in the framework of quantum
mechanics measurements being
fundamentally random. Nevertheless, it is
not settled
1
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Quantum measurement - Is the measurement process random or
deterministic?
whether this is true, fundamental
randomness, or merely emergent
randomness resulting from
underlying Hidden variable
theory|hidden variables which
deterministically cause measurement
results to happen a certain way each
time. This continues to be an area of
active research.
1
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Quantum measurement - Is the measurement process random or
deterministic?
1
If there are hidden variables, they would have
to be Principle of locality|nonlocal.
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Quantum measurement - Does the measurement process violate locality?
1
In physics, the 'Principle of locality' is
the concept that information cannot
travel faster than the speed of light
(also see special relativity)
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Queue management system - Queue measurement and management techniques
1
Various queue measurement and
management techniques exist:
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems
1
These use a variety of measurement
technologies which predict and
measure queue lengths and waiting
times and provide management
information to help service levels and
resource deployment.
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for
small structured queues
1
Automatic queue measurement systems
are designed to help managers in two
ways - first, through enhanced customer
service; second by improving efficiency
and reducing costs.
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for small
structured queues
1
Key measurements
produced are:
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for
small structured queues
1
A number of the large UK supermarket
chains use such systems for service level
and resource management.
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for large
and unstructured queues
1
Although a sampling technique, as
typically 10 – 30% of telephone have
active Bluetooth at any one time , it
gives accurate measurement of
average queue wait times where long
queues are present
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
1
Reception management solutions allow
managing flows and the purposes of visits
from initial contact to the service given.
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
1
These intelligent management systems
allow to increase productivity and sales
and reduce operating costs by ensuring
that customer is served by the staff that
are the most qualified according to the
request.
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
1
Reception management solutions are
above all a way of increasing
customer satisfaction by reducing the
perceived and actual waiting time,
creating a pleasant environment and a
fair reception.
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
These innovative reception
management solutions also contribute
to the satisfaction of working teams by
reducing the amount of stress and
optimizing the processing of requests.
1
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
Reception management solutions also
enable to generate data about how
customers wait and how staff can best
serve them. This type of information
assists in improving organization
processes and in increasing the quality of
customer service.
1
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
1
* Information (can also be done by video, SMS,
Internet ...QudiniHQ.Wordpress.com)
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
* Waiting
communication (can
also be done by video,
SMS, Internet ...)
1
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Queue management system - Automatic queue measurement systems for a
complete reception solution
1
Besides these stages, for a complete
reception solution, it is useful and
efficient to include appointments
management, agenda planning and
future flows and resources forecasting.
These modular solutions, adaptable to
various sectors (Retail, Health,
Telecommunications, Finance,
Transport, Public Sector...), can suit to
the management of a simple queue to
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
1
The period over which the average is
calculated is often one hour, but shorter
periods (e.g., 15 minutes) may be used
where it is known that there are short
spurts of demand and a traffic
measurement is desired that does not
mask these spurts.
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
One erlang of carried traffic refers to a
single resource being in continuous use,
or two channels being in use fifty percent
of the time, and so on. For example, if an
office has two telephone operators who
are both busy all the time, that would
represent two erlangs (2 E) of traffic; or a
radio channel that is occupied for one hour
continuously is said to have a load of 1
Erlang.
1
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
1
When used to describe 'offered traffic',
a value followed by “erlangs”
represents the average number of
concurrent calls that would have been
carried if there were an unlimited
number of circuits (that is, if the callattempts that were made when all
circuits were in use had not been
rejected)
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
A third measurement of traffic is
'instantaneous traffic', expressed as a
certain number of erlangs, meaning the
exact number of calls taking place at a
point in time. In this case the number is
an integer. Traffic-level-recording devices,
such as moving-pen recorders, plot
instantaneous traffic.
1
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
The concepts and
mathematics introduced by
A
1
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
1
provided that h and λ are expressed using
the same units of time (seconds and calls
per second, or minutes and calls per
minute).
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
1
These measurements are then used to
calculate a single result, most commonly
the 'busy hour traffic' (in erlangs)
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
The goal of Erlang’s traffic theory is to
determine exactly how many serviceproviding elements should be provided in
order to satisfy users, without wasteful
over-provisioning
1
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
There are several Erlang formulae,
including Erlang B, Erlang C and the
related Engset formula, based on different
models of user behavior and system
operation. These are discussed below,
and may each be derived by means of a
special case of continuous-time Markov
processes known as a birth-death
process.
1
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
1
Where the existing busy-hour carried
traffic, Ec, is measured on an alreadyoverloaded system, with a significant
level of blocking, it is necessary to take
account of the blocked calls in
estimating the busy-hour offered traffic
Eo (which is the traffic value to be used
in the Erlang formula)
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Erlang unit - Traffic measurements of a telephone circuit
1
For a situation where the traffic to be
handled is completely new traffic, the
only choice is to try to model expected
user behavior, estimating active user
population, N, expected level of use, U
(number of calls/transactions per user
per day), busy-hour concentration
factor, C (proportion of daily activity
that will fall in the busy hour), and
average holding time/service time, h
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Eye tracking - Electric potential measurement
1
The third category uses electric potentials measured
with electrodes placed around the eyes
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Eye tracking - Electric potential measurement
Due to potential drifts and variable
relations between the EOG signal
amplitudes and the saccade sizes
make it challenging to use EOG for
measuring slow eye movement and
detecting gaze direction. EOG is,
however, a very robust technique for
measuring saccade|saccadic eye
movement associated with gaze shifts
and detecting blinks.
1
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Eye tracking - Electric potential measurement
1
Contrary to video-based eye-trackers,
EOG allows recording of eye
movements even with eyes closed, and
can thus be used in sleep research
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Inertial measurement unit
An IMU allows a GPS to work when
GPS-signals are unavailable, such as in
tunnels, inside buildings, or when
electronic interference is
present.[http://www.eetimes.com/electroni
cs-news/4216978/GPS-system-with-IMUstracks-first-responders 'GPS system with
IMUs tracks first responders'] A wireless
IMU is known as a
WIMU.http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5
1
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Inertial measurement unit
The IMU is the main component of
inertial navigation systems used in
aircraft, spacecraft, watercraft, and
guided missiles among others. In this
capacity, the data collected from the
IMU's sensors allows a computer to
track a craft's position, using a
method known as dead reckoning.
1
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
1
An inertial measurement unit works
by detecting the current rate of
acceleration using one or more
accelerometers, and detects changes
in rotational attributes like Flight
dynamics|pitch, roll and yaw using
one or more gyroscopes. And some
also include a magnetometer, mostly
to assist calibrate against orientation
drift.
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
Inertial navigation systems contain
IMUs which have angular and linear
accelerometers (for changes in
position); some IMUs include a
gyroscopic element (for maintaining an
absolute angular reference).
1
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
1
Angular accelerometers measure how
the vehicle is rotating in space.
Generally, there is at least one sensor
for each of the three axes: pitch (nose
up and down), yaw (nose left and right)
and roll (clockwise or counterclockwise from the cockpit).
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
1
Linear accelerometers measure nongravitational accelerationsEshbach's
Handbook of Engineering
Fundamentals By Ovid W. Eshbach,
Byron pg 9 of the vehicle. Since it can
move in three axes (up down, left
right, forward back), there is a linear
accelerometer for each axis.
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
A computer continually calculates the
vehicle's current position. First, for each of
the six degrees of freedom
(engineering)|degrees of freedom (x,y,z
and θx, θy and θz), it integrates over time
the sensed acceleration, together with an
estimate of gravity, to calculate the current
velocity. Then it integrates the velocity to
calculate the current position.
1
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
1
Inertial guidance is difficult without
computers. The desire to use inertial
guidance in the Minuteman missile
and Project Apollo drove early
attempts to miniaturize computers.
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
Inertial guidance systems are now
usually combined with satellite
navigation systems through a digital
filtering system. The inertial system
provides short term data, while the
satellite system corrects accumulated
errors of the inertial system.
1
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Inertial measurement unit - Operational principles
1
An inertial guidance system that will
operate near the surface of the earth
must incorporate Schuler tuning so
that its platform will continue pointing
towards the center of the earth as a
vehicle moves from place to place.
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Inertial measurement unit - Construction
1
The term IMU is widely used to refer
to a box containing three
accelerometers and three gyroscopes
and optionally three magnetometers.
The accelerometers are placed such
that their measuring axes are
orthogonal to each other. They
measure inertial acceleration, also
known as G-forces.
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Inertial measurement unit - Construction
1
Three gyroscopes are placed in a
similar orthogonal pattern,
measuring rotational position in
reference to an arbitrarily chosen
coordinate system.
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Inertial measurement unit - Construction
1
Recently, more and more manufacturers
also include three magnetometers in
IMUs. This allows better performance for
dynamic orientation calculation in Attitude
and heading reference systems which
base on IMUs.
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Inertial measurement unit - Uses
1
IMUs are used in vehicle-installed inertial
guidance systems. Today almost every
commercial or military water-going vessel
has one. Most aircraft are also equipped
with IMUs.
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Inertial measurement unit - Uses
1
IMUs are also used alone on air- and
spacecraft, in order to report inertial
measurements to a pilot (whether he
is in the cockpit or piloting by remote
control). They are critical during
space missions to maneuver manned
or unmanned Lander
(spacecraft)|landers and other craft.
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Inertial measurement unit - Uses
IMUs can, besides navigational purposes,
serve as orientation sensors in the human field
of motion
1
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Inertial measurement unit - Uses
1
When used in orientation sensors, the
term IMU is often (wrongly) used
synonymously for Attitude and heading
reference system. However, an Attitude
and heading reference system includes
an IMU but additionally -and that is the
key difference- a processing system
which calculates the relative orientation
in space.
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Inertial measurement unit - In navigation
1
In a navigation system, the data reported
by the IMU is fed into a computer, which
calculates its current position based on
velocity and time.
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Inertial measurement unit - In navigation
1
For example, if an IMU installed in an
aeroplane were to detect that the craft
traveled westward for 1 hour at an
average speed of 500 miles per hour,
then the guidance computer would
deduce that the plane must be 500
miles west of its initial position
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Inertial measurement unit - In navigation
1
One of the earliest units was designed and
built by Sperry Corporation|Ford
Instrument Company for the USAF to help
aircraft navigate in flight without any input
from outside the aircraft
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Inertial measurement unit - Disadvantages
1
A major disadvantage of using IMUs
for navigation is that they typically
suffer from accumulated error,
including Abbe error. Because the
guidance system is continually
adding detected changes to its
previously-calculated positions (see
dead reckoning), any errors in
measurement, however small, are
accumulated from point to point. This
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Inertial measurement unit - Disadvantages
Because the devices are only able to
collect data in a finite time interval, IMUs
are always working with averages. So if an
accelerometer is able to retrieve the
acceleration once per second, the device
will have to work as if that had been the
acceleration throughout that whole
second, although the acceleration could
have varied drastically in that time period.
Of course modern devices are able to
1
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Inertial measurement unit - Disadvantages
For example, if an individual were
blindfolded, moved in a series of
directions, and then asked where they
think they are, they would only be able to
estimate their final position
1
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Inertial measurement unit - Disadvantages
1
IMUs are normally only one component of
a navigation system. Other systems are
used to correct the inaccuracies that IMUs
inevitably suffer, such as GPS, gravity
sensors (for local vertical), external speed
sensors (to compensate for velocity drift),
a barometer|barometric system for altitude
correction, and a magnetic compass.
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Inertial measurement unit - TIMU (Timing IMU) sensors
DARPA's Microsystems Technology
Office( MTO) department is working on a
Micro-PNT (Micro-Technology for
Positioning, Navigation and Timing)
program to design TIMU (Timing Inertial
Measurement Unit) chips that does
absolute position tracking on a single chip
without GPS aided
navigation.http://www.darpa.mil/Our_Work/
MTO/Programs/Micro1
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Inertial measurement unit - TIMU (Timing IMU) sensors
1
Micro-PNT adds integrates a highly
accurate master timing
clockhttp://www.darpa.mil/Our_Wor
k/MTO/Programs/MicroTechnology_Positioning,_Navigation_
and_Timing_%28MicroPNT%29/Clocks.aspx Micro-PNT Clocks integrated into an IMU
(Inertial Measurement Unit) chip,
making it a TIMU (Timing Inertial
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Milimetre - Measurement
On a metric ruler, the smallest
measurements are normally millimetres.
Digital Vernier scale|Vernier callipers are
commonly capable of reading increments
as small as 0.01mm.
1
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Milimetre - Measurement
1
Microwaves with a frequency of 300Ghz
have a wavelength of 1mm. Using
wavelengths between 30 and 300 Ghz for
data transmission, in contrast to the
300Mhz to 3Ghz normally used in mobile
devices, has the potential to allow data
transfer rates of 10 Gigabits per second.
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Milimetre - Measurement
1
The smallest distances the human eye can
resolve is around 0.02 to 0.04mm,
approximately the width of a human hair. A
sheet of paper is typically between 0.07
and 0.18mm thick, with ordinary printer
paper or copy paper approximately a tenth
of a millimetre thick. The thinnest phone is
the Huawei Ascend P6, at 6.2mm thick.
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Beta testing - Measurement in software testing
1
Usually, quality is constrained to such
topics as correctness (computer
science)|correctness, completeness,
computer security audit|security, but
can also include more technical
requirements as described under the
International Organization for
Standardization|ISO standard ISO/IEC
9126, such as capability, Reliability
engineering|reliability, algorithmic
efficiency|efficiency,
Porting|portability, maintainability,
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Motion capture - Measurement volume
1
A Underwater camera is typically able to
measure 15–20 meters depending on the
water quality and the type of marker used.
Unsurprisingly, the best range is achieved
when the water is clear, and like always,
the measurement volume is also
dependent on the number of cameras. A
range of underwater markers are available
for different circumstances.
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Climate change - Temperature measurements and proxies
The instrumental temperature record from
surface stations was supplemented by
radiosonde|radiosonde balloons, extensive
atmospheric monitoring by the mid-20th
century, and, from the 1970s on, with Satellite
temperature measurements|global satellite
data as well. The 18O/16O ratio in calcite and
ice core samples Oxygen isotope ratio
cycle|used to deduce ocean temperature in
the distant past is an example of a
temperature proxy method, as are other
climate metrics noted in subsequent
categories.
1
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Quiet PC - Sound power and pressure measurement
1
Without knowing how it was measured,
it is not possible to verify these claims,
and comparisons between such
measurements (e.g
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Interpupillary distance - Measurement
1
IPD can be precisely measured with
a pupilometer
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Performance measurement
'Performance measurement' is the
process of collecting, analyzing and/or
reporting information regarding the
performance of an individual, group,
organization, system or component. It
can involve studying
processes/strategies within
organizations, or studying engineering
processes/parameters/phenomena, to
see whether output are in line with what
1
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Performance measurement - Performance measurement in education
1
Linking performance measurement
and organisational excellence,
International Journal of Health Care
Quality Assurance,20:3,pp
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Performance measurement - Performance measurement in education
1
Performance measurement estimates the
parameters under which programs,
investments, and acquisitions are reaching
the targeted results.Office of the Chief
Information Officer (OCIO) Enterprise
Architecture Program (2007)
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Performance measurement - Performance measurement in education
All process of
measurement|measuring
performance requires the use of
statistical modeling to determine
results. A full scope copy of the
performance of an organization can
never be obtained, as generally some
of the parameters cannot be measured
directly but must be estimated via
indirect observation and as a
1
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Performance measurement - Performance measurement in education
With continued research efforts and the
test of time, the best-of-breed theories that
help organizations structure and
implement its performance measurement
system should emerge.
1
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Performance measurement - Performance measurement in education
Although the Balanced Scorecard has
become very popular, there is no single
version of the model that has been
universally accepted. The diversity and
unique requirements of different
enterprises suggest that no one-size-fitsall approach will ever do the job. Gamble,
Strickland and Thompson (2007, p.31) list
ten financial objectives and nine strategic
objectives involved with a balanced
1
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Performance measurement - Performance measurement in engineering
1
Performance measurement are carried
out in the design, building, operation
and maintenance of systems,
machines, devices, structures,
materials and processes. In design,
performance measurement can be of
physical properties, parameters, etc.,
while in maintenance, repair, and
operations, and reliability engineering,
failures, downtime, uptime,
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Situational awareness - Measurement
These SA measurement
approaches are further described
next.
1
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Situational awareness - Multi-faceted approach to measurement
1
Such a multi-faced approach to SA
measurement capitalizes on the
strengths of each measure while
minimizing the limitations inherent in
each.
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Statistics - Levels of measurement
1
Nominal measurements have no
meaningful rank order among
values.
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Statistics - Levels of measurement
Because variables conforming only to
nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be
reasonably measured numerically,
sometimes they are grouped together as
categorical variables, whereas ratio and
interval measurements are grouped together
as Variable (mathematics)#Applied
statistics|quantitative variables, which can be
either Probability distribution#Discrete
probability distribution|discrete or Probability
distribution#Continuous probability
distribution|continuous, due to their numerical
nature.
1
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Uncertainty - Measurements
1
In metrology, physics, and engineering,
the uncertainty or margin of error of a
measurement is stated by giving a range
of values likely to enclose the true value.
This may be denoted by error bars on a
graph, or by the following notations:
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Uncertainty - Measurements
1
The middle notation is used when the error is not
symmetrical about the value – for example 3.4_^
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Uncertainty - Measurements
1
Often, the uncertainty of a measurement is
found by repeating the measurement
enough times to get a good estimate of the
standard deviation of the values. Then,
any single value has an uncertainty equal
to the standard deviation. However, if the
values are averaged, then the mean
measurement value has a much smaller
uncertainty, equal to the standard error
(statistics)|standard error of the mean,
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Uncertainty - Measurements
1
These values follow from the properties of
the normal distribution, and they apply
only if the measurement process produces
normally distributed errors
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Uncertainty - Measurements
Notice that precision is often
determined as the standard deviation of
the repeated measures of a given value,
namely using the same method
described above to assess
measurement uncertainty
1
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Petrol engine - Power measurement
1
The most common way of engine rating is
what is known as the brake power,
Horsepower#Measurement|measured at
the flywheel, and given in Watt|kilowatts
(metric) or horsepower (USA)
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Petrol engine - Power measurement
Car testers are most familiar with the
Dynamometer#Chassis
dynamometer|chassis dynamometer or
rolling road installed in many workshops.
This measures drive wheel brake
horsepower, which is generally less than
the brake horsepower measured at the
crankshaft or flywheel on an engine
dynamometer.
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WkqbTI
1
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Particle size distribution - Air pollution emissions measurements
1
is currently the most widely accepted
test method for particle size
distribution emissions
measurements.
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis - Measurements and status of theory
The theory of BBN gives a detailed
mathematical description of the
production of the light elements
deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and
lithium-7. Specifically, the theory
yields precise quantitative predictions
for the mixture of these elements, that
is, the primordial abundances at the
end of the big-bang.
1
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis - Measurements and status of theory
In order to test these predictions, it is
necessary to reconstruct the primordial
abundances as faithfully as possible, for
instance by observing astronomical
objects in which very little stellar
nucleosynthesis has taken place (such as
certain Dwarf galaxy|dwarf galaxies) or by
observing objects that are very far away,
and thus can be seen in a very early stage
of their evolution (such as distant
1
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis - Measurements and status of theory
1
As noted above, in the standard picture of
BBN, all of the light element abundances
depend on the amount of ordinary matter
(baryons) relative to radiation (photons)
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis - Measurements and status of theory
More recently, the question has changed:
Precision observations of the cosmic
microwave background radiationDavid
Toback(2009)[http://bigbang.physics.tamu.ed
u/ChapterText/Ch12text.pdf Chapter 12:
Cosmic Background Radiation]David
Toback(2009)[http://bigbang.physics.tamu.ed
u/ChapterText/Ch13text.pdf Unit 4: The
Evolution Of The Universe] with the Wilkinson
Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) give an
independent value for the baryon-to-photon
ratio
1
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis - Measurements and status of theory
1
The present measurement of helium-4 indicates
good agreement, and yet better agreement for
helium-3
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis - Measurements and status of theory
1
For the observational
values, see the
following articles:
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Exothermic reaction - Measurement
1
Heat production or absorption in either a
physical process or chemical reaction is
measured using calorimetry. One common
laboratory instrument is the reaction
calorimeter, where the heat flow into or
from the reaction vessel is monitored. The
technique can be used to follow chemical
reactions as well as physical processes
such as crystallisation and Dissolution
(chemistry)|dissolution.
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Exothermic reaction - Measurement
1
Energy released is measured in Joule per
mole. The reaction has a negative ΔH(heat
change) value due to heat loss.
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Zeta potential - Measurement of zeta potential
1
Zeta potential is not measurable directly
but it can be calculated using theoretical
models and an experimentally-determined
electrophoretic mobility or dynamic
electrophoretic mobility.
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Zeta potential - Measurement of zeta potential
Electrokinetic phenomena and
electroacoustic phenomena are the
usual sources of data for calculation of
zeta potential.
1
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Wind tunnel - Measurement of aerodynamic forces
1
Air velocity and pressures
are measured in several
ways in wind tunnels.
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Wind tunnel - Measurement of aerodynamic forces
1
Air velocity through the test section is
determined by Bernoulli's principle.
Measurement of the dynamic pressure,
the static pressure, and (for
compressible flow only) the
temperature rise in the airflow.
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Wind tunnel - Measurement of aerodynamic forces
The direction of airflow around a model
can be determined by tufts of yarn
attached to the aerodynamic surfaces. The
direction of airflow approaching a surface
can be visualized by mounting threads in
the airflow ahead of and aft of the test
model. Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be
introduced into the airflow upstream of the
test model, and their path around the
model can be photographed (see particle
1
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Wind tunnel - Measurement of aerodynamic forces
1
Aerodynamic forces on the test model are
usually measured with beam balances,
connected to the test model with
beams,strings, or cables.
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Wind tunnel - Measurement of aerodynamic forces
1
The pressure distributions across the
test model have historically been
measured by drilling many small
holes along the airflow path, and
using multi-tube manometers to
measure the pressure at each hole
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Wind tunnel - Measurement of aerodynamic forces
1
Pressure distributions on a test model
can also be determined by performing a
'wake survey', in which either a single
pitot tube is used to obtain multiple
readings downstream of the test model,
or a multiple-tube manometer is
mounted downstream and all its
readings are taken.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-measurement-toolkit.html
Wind tunnel - Measurement of aerodynamic forces
1
It should be noted that the aerodynamic
properties of an object do not remain the
same for a scaled
model[http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/p
df/10.1146/annurev.fl.15.010183.001255
Low-Reynolds-Number Airfoils, P.B.S.
Lissaman, AeroVironment Inc., Pasadena,
California, 91107]
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Pigovian tax - Measurement problem
1
Arthur Pigou said: It must be confessed,
however, that we seldom know enough to
decide in what fields and to what extent
the State, on account of [the gaps
between private and public costs] could
interfere with individual choice.Pigou, A.C.,
(1954) Some Aspects of the Welfare State
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Pigovian tax - Measurement problem
Even if a measurement of the
psychological effect of some externality
did exist, it would be impossible to collect
that data for all individuals affected and
then find the optimum output level
1
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Pigovian tax - Measurement problem
Peter Boettke brings forth that The
Pigouvian remedy was to bring marginal
private costs (subjectively understood) into
line with marginal social costs (objectively
understood)
1
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Atomic force microscopy - Beam deflection measurement
The most common method for
cantilever deflection measurements is
the beam deflection method. In this
method laser light from a solid state
diode is reflected off the back of the
cantilever and collected by a position
sensitive detector (PSD) consisting of
two closely spaced photodiodes whose
output signal is collected by a
differential amplifier.
1
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Atomic force microscopy - Beam deflection measurement
Angular displacement of the
cantilever results in one photodiode
collecting more light than the other
photodiode, producing an output
signal (the difference between the
photodiode signals normalized by
their sum) which is proportional to the
deflection of the cantilever. It detects
cantilever deflections
1
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Ultrasound - Motion sensors and flow measurement
1
A common ultrasound application is
an automatic door opener, where an
ultrasonic sensor detects a person's
approach and opens the door
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Soil health - Measurement
1
On the basis of the above, soil health will
be measured in terms of individual
ecosystem services provided relative to
the benchmark. Specific benchmarks
used to evaluate soil health include CO2
release, humus levels, microbial activity,
and available
calcium.[http://www.highbrixgardens.com/g
arden-restoration/healthy-soil.html]
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Nanometrology - Measurement techniques
1
In the last 70 years various techniques
for measuring at nanoscale have been
developed most of them based on
some physical phenomena observed
on particle interactions or forces at
nanoscale. Some of the most
commonly used techniques are
Atomic Force Microscopy, X-Ray
Diffraction, Scanning Electron
Microscopy, Transmission Electron
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Nanometrology - Measurement techniques
1
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is one of the most
common measurement techniques
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Nanometrology - Measurement techniques
1
Measurements are made by monitoring
the current as the tip's position scans
across the surface, which can then be
used to display an image.
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Nanometrology - Measurement techniques
1
Another commonly used instrument is the
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
which apart from measuring the shape and
size of the particles and topography of the
surface can be used to determine the
composition of elements and compounds
the sample is composed of
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Nanometrology - Measurement techniques
The instruments mentioned above
produce realistic pictures of the surface
are excellent measuring tools for research.
Industrial applications of nanotechnology
require the measurements to be produced
need to be more quantitative. The
requirement in industrial nanometrology is
for higher accuracy than resolution as
compared to research nanometrology.
1
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Nanometrology - List Of some of the measurement techniques
1
#Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
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Nanometrology - List Of some of the measurement techniques
#Small Angle
Neutron Scattering
1
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Nanometrology - List Of some of the measurement techniques
1
#Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance
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Nanometrology - List Of some of the measurement techniques
1
#Fouier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy
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Nanometrology - List Of some of the measurement techniques
1
#Cathodoluminescence
Spectroscopy
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Nanometrology - List Of some of the measurement techniques
1
#Four point probe and I-V
technique
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Nanometrology - List Of some of the measurement techniques
1
#Neutron Diffraction
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Nanometrology - Surface Area Measurement
For nanopowder to determine the
specific surface area the BET
theory|B.E.T. method is commonly
used. The drop of pressure of nitrogen
in a closed container due to adsorption
of the nitrogen molecules to the
surface of the material inserted in the
container is measured. Also, the shape
of the nanopowder particles is
assumed to be spherical.
1
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Nanometrology - Surface Area Measurement
1
Where D is the effective diameter, ρ is the
density and A is the surface area fond from
the B.E.T. method.
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Solar constant - Historical measurements
In 1838, Claude Pouillet made the first
estimate of the solar constant. Using a
very simple pyrheliometer he developed,
he obtained a value of
1228W/m²,[http://documents.irevues.inist.f
r/bitstream/handle/2042/16943/meteo_200
8_60_36.pdf The measurement of the
solar constant by Claude Pouillet], by J-L
Dufresne,
[http://www.smf.asso.fr/lameteo.html La
1
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Solar constant - Historical measurements
1
In 1875, Jules Violle resumed the work of
Pouillet and offered a somewhat larger
estimate of 1.7kW/m² based, in part, on a
celebrated measurement that he made
from Mont Blanc in France.
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Solar constant - Historical measurements
In 1884, Samuel Pierpont Langley
attempted to estimate the solar constant
from Mount Whitney in California. By
taking readings at different times of day,
he tried to correct for effects due to
atmospheric absorption. However, the final
value he proposed, 2.903kW/m², was
much too large.
1
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Solar constant - Historical measurements
Between 1902 and 1957,
measurements by Charles Greeley
Abbot and others at various highaltitude sites found values between
1.322 and 1.465kW/m². Abbott showed
that one of Langley's corrections was
erroneously applied. His results
varied between 1.89 and 2.22 calories
(1.318 to 1.548kW/m²), a variation that
appeared to be due to the Sun and not
1
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Microphone - Measurements and specifications
1
As a result, comparison of published
data from different manufacturers is
difficult because different
measurement techniques are used
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Microphone - Measurements and specifications
Close talking microphones may be
measured with different sound sources
and distances, but there is no standard
and therefore no way to compare data
from different models unless the
measurement technique is described.
1
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Microphone - Measurements and specifications
1
The self-noise or equivalent noise level is
the sound level that creates the same
output voltage as the microphone does in
the absence of sound
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Microphone - Measurements and specifications
1
The maximum SPL the microphone can
accept is measured for particular values of
total harmonic distortion (THD), typically
0.5%. This amount of distortion is
generally inaudible, so one can safely use
the microphone at this SPL without
harming the recording. Example: 142dB
SPL peak (at 0.5%THD). The higher the
value, the better, although microphones
with a very high maximum SPL also have
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Microphone - Measurements and specifications
1
The clipping level is an important indicator
of maximum usable level, as the 1%THD
figure usually quoted under max SPL is
really a very mild level of distortion, quite
inaudible especially on brief high peaks.
Clipping is much more audible. For some
microphones the clipping level may be
much higher than the max SPL.
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Microphone - Measurements and specifications
1
The dynamic range of a microphone is
the difference in SPL between the
noise floor and the maximum SPL. If
stated on its own, for example 120dB,
it conveys significantly less
information than having the self-noise
and maximum SPL figures
individually.
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Microphone - Measurements and specifications
1
Sensitivity (electronics)|Sensitivity
indicates how well the microphone
converts acoustic pressure to output
voltage
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Microphone - Measurement microphones
1
The quality of measurement microphones
is often referred to using the designations
Class 1, Type 2 etc., which are references
not to microphone specifications but to
sound level meters.IEC Standard 61672
and ANSI S1.4 A more comprehensive
standardIEC 61094 for the description of
measurement microphone performance
was recently adopted.
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Microphone - Measurement microphones
1
Measurement microphones are generally
scalar sensors of pressure; they exhibit an
omnidirectional response, limited only by
the scattering profile of their physical
dimensions. Sound intensity or sound
power measurements require pressuregradient measurements, which are
typically made using arrays of at least two
microphones, or with Hot-wire
anemometry|hot-wire anemometers.
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Base pair - Length measurements
1
The following abbreviations are commonly used
to describe the length of a D/RDNA|NA molecule:
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Base pair - Length measurements
For case of single-stranded DNA/RNA
units of nucleotides are used, abbreviated
nt (or knt, Mnt, Gnt), as they are not
paired.
1
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Base pair - Length measurements
For distinction between units of
computer storage and bases kbp,
Mbp, Gbp, etc. may be used for base
pairs.
1
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Base pair - Length measurements
The Centimorgan is also often used to
imply distance along a chromosome, but
the number of base pairs it corresponds to
varies widely. In the Human genome, the
centimorgan is about 1 million base pairs.
1
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Gabriel Lippmann - Measurement of time
1
In 1895, Lippmann evolved a method of
eliminating the personal equation in
measurements of time, using photographic
registration, and he studied the eradication
of irregularities of pendulum clocks,
devising a method of comparing the times
of oscillation of two pendulums of nearly
equal period.
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Melting point - Melting point measurements
1
Many laboratory techniques
exist for the determination of
melting points.
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Melting point - Melting point measurements
A Kofler bench is a metal strip with a
temperature gradient (range from room
temperature to 300 °C). Any substance
can be placed on a section of the strip
revealing its thermal behaviour at the
temperature at that point. Differential
scanning calorimetry gives information on
melting point together with its enthalpy of
fusion.
1
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Melting point - Melting point measurements
1
A basic melting point apparatus for the
analysis of crystalline solids consists
of an oil bath with a transparent
window (most basic design: a Thiele
tube) and a simple magnifier
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Melting point - Melting point measurements
The measurement can also be made
continuously with an operating process.
For instance, oil refineries measure the
freeze point of diesel fuel online, meaning
that the sample is taken from the process
and measured automatically. This allows
for more frequent measurements as the
sample does not have to be manually
collected and taken to a remote laboratory.
1
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Loudspeakers - Electromechanical measurements
1
Most of these measurements require
sophisticated and often expensive
equipment to perform, and also good
judgment by the operator, but the raw
sound pressure level output is rather
easier to report and so is often the only
specified value—sometimes in
misleadingly exact terms
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Friction - Measurement
*A tribometer is an
instrument that
measures friction on a
surface.
1
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Friction - Measurement
1
*A profilograph is a device
used to measure pavement
surface roughness.
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Adaptive optics - Measurement of ocular aberrations
1
Optical aberration|Ocular aberrations are
generally measured using a wavefront
sensor, and the most commonly used type
of wavefront sensor is the ShackHartmann
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Ultraviolet - Detection and measurement
1
Ultraviolet detection and measurement
technology can vary with the part of the
spectrum under consideration
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Ultraviolet - Detection and measurement
Ultraviolet light can be detected by
suitable photodiodes and photocathodes,
which can be tailored to be sensitive to
different parts of the UV spectrum.
1
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Ultraviolet - Detection and measurement
1
Sensitive ultraviolet
photomultipliers are
available.
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Sensors - Classification of measurement errors
* Is sensitive to the
measured property only
1
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Sensors - Classification of measurement errors
1
* Is insensitive to any other property likely to
be encountered in its application
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Sensors - Classification of measurement errors
1
* Does not influence
the measured
property
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Sensors - Classification of measurement errors
For example, if a sensor measures
temperature and has a voltage output, the
sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K];
this sensor is linear because the ratio is
constant at all points of measurement.
1
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Temperature - Temperature measurement
Temperature measurement using
modern scientific thermometers and
temperature scales goes back at least
as far as the early 18th century, when
Gabriel Fahrenheit adapted a
thermometer (switching to mercury
(element)|mercury) and a scale both
developed by Ole Rømer|Ole
Christensen Rømer. Fahrenheit's
scale is still in use in the United States
1
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Temperature - Temperature measurement
Temperature is measured with
thermometers that may be
calibration|calibrated to a variety of
Temperature conversion
formulas|temperature scales
1
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Magnetic field - Measurement
1
The precision attained for a magnetic
field measurement for Gravity Probe B
experiment is 5attotesla (); the largest
magnetic field produced in a laboratory
is 2.8kT (VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998)
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Magnetic field - Measurement
1
Devices used to measure the local
magnetic field are called
magnetometers
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Galvanometer - Geomagnetic field measurement
1
A tangent galvanometer can also be used
to measure the magnitude of the
horizontal component of the geomagnetic
field
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Sonar - Wave measurement
1
An upward looking echo sounder mounted
on the bottom or on a platform may be
used to make measurements of wave
height and period. From this statistics of
the surface conditions at a location can be
derived.
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Sonar - Water velocity measurement
1
Special short range sonars have been developed to
allow measurements of water velocity.
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Sonar - Bottom topography measurement
1
Side-scan sonars can be used to derive
maps of the topography of an area by
moving the sonar across it just above
the bottom. Low frequency sonars
such as GLORIA sidescan
sonar|GLORIA have been used for
continental shelf wide surveys while
high frequency sonars are used for
more detailed surveys of smaller
areas.
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Leaf sensor - Water deficit stress measurements
A Phase I research grant from the
National Science Foundation in 2007
showed that the leaf sensor technology
has the potential to save between 30%
and 50% of irrigation water by
reducing irrigation from once every
24 hours to about every 2 to 2.5 days
by sensing impending water deficit
stress
1
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Time-domain reflectometer - TDR in level measurement
In a TDR-based level measurement
device, the device generates an impulse
that propagates down a thin wave guide
(also referred to as a probe) – typically a
metal rod or a steel cable
1
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Water quality - Sampling and measurement
1
Measurements commonly made onsite and in direct contact with the
water source in question include
temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,
Conductivity
(electrolytic)|conductivity, Reduction
potential|oxygen reduction potential
(ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk
depth.
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List of timelines - Measurement
* Timeline of
temperature and
pressure
measurement
technology (1450–
1930)
1
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List of timelines - Measurement
* Timeline of time
measurement technology
(270 BCE – present)
1
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Hooke's Law - Units of measurement
In International System of Units|SI
units, displacements are measured in
metres (m), and forces in newton
(unit)|newtons (N or kg·m/s2).
Therefore the spring constant k, and
each element of the tensor \kappa, is
measured in newtons per metre
(N/m), or kilograms per second
squared (kg/s2).
1
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Hooke's Law - Units of measurement
1
For continuous media, each element of
the stress tensor \sigma is a force
divided by an area; it is therefore
measured in units of pressure, namely
pascal (unit)|pascals (Pa, or N/m2, or
kg/m/s2. The elements of the strain
tensor \epsilon are dimensionless
(displacements divided by distances).
Therefore the entries of c_ are also
expressed in units of pressure.
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Spark gap - Sphere gap for voltage measurement
1
A gap between two spheres can provide a
voltage measurement without any
electronics or voltage dividers, to an
accuracy of about 3%
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Spark gap - Sphere gap for voltage measurement
1
High Voltage Engineering and Testing (2nd
Edition), Institution of Engineering and
Technology 2001, ISBN 978-0-85296-7751 pages
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Thermal conductor - Measurement
There are a number of ways to
measure thermal conductivity. Each
of these is suitable for a limited range
of materials, depending on the
thermal properties and the medium
temperature. There is a distinction
between steady-state and transient
techniques.
1
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Thermal conductor - Measurement
In general, steady-state techniques are
useful when the temperature of the
material does not change with time. This
makes the signal analysis straightforward
(steady state implies constant signals).
The disadvantage is that a wellengineered experimental setup is usually
needed. The Divided Bar (various types) is
the most common device used for
consolidated rock solids.
1
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Circulatory system - Measurement techniques
* Pulse meter—for
cardiac function (heart
rate, rhythm, dropped
beats)
1
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Circulatory system - Measurement techniques
1
* Pulse—commonly used to determine the
heart rate in absence of certain cardiac
pathologies
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Circulatory system - Measurement techniques
1
* Heart rate variability—used to measure
variations of time intervals between heart
beats
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Circulatory system - Measurement techniques
1
* Nail (anatomy)|Nail bed
blanching test—test for
perfusion
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Circulatory system - Measurement techniques
1
* Vessel cannula or catheter pressure
measurement—pulmonary wedge
pressure or in older animal experiments.
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Sustainability measurement
The metrics used for the
measurement of sustainability
(involving the sustainability of
environmental, social and economic
domains, both individually and in
various combinations) are still
evolving: they include Ecological
indicator|indicators, benchmarks,
audits, indexes and accounting, as
well as assessment, appraisalDalal1
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Sustainability measurement
1
Some of the best known and most widely
used sustainability measures include
corporate sustainability reporting, Triple
bottom line|Triple Bottom Line accounting,
and estimates of the quality of
sustainability governance for individual
countries using the Environmental
Sustainability Index and Environmental
Performance Index. An alternative
approach, used by the United Nations
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Sustainability measurement - Sustainability indicators and their function
The principal objective of sustainability
indicators is to inform public policy-making
as part of the process of sustainability
governance.
1
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Sustainability measurement - Sustainability indicators and their function
Sustainability indicators can provide
information on any aspect of the interplay
between the environment and socioeconomic activities.Hak, T., Moldan, B
1
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Sustainability measurement - United Nations Indicators
The United Nations has developed
extensive sustainability measurement
tools in relation to sustainable
development
[http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinf
o/indicators/isd.htm] United Nations
sutainable development indicators as
well as a System of Integrated
Environmental and Economic
Accounting.[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/
envaccounting/seea.asp], International
Standard Industrial Classification UN
System of Integrated Environmental and
Economic Accounting
1
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
In the last couple of decades there has
arisen a crowded toolbox of quantitative
methods used to assess sustainability —
including measures of resource use like
life cycle assessment, measures of
consumption like the ecological footprint
and measurements of quality of
environmental governance like the
Environmental Performance Index
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
: A benchmark is a point of reference for a
measurement. Once a benchmark is
established it is possible to assess trends
and measure progress. Baseline global
data on a range of sustainability
parameters is available at list of global
sustainability statistics
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
: A sustainability index is an aggregate
sustainability indicator that combines
multiple sources of data. There is a
Consultative Group on Sustainable
Development Indices
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:Education Index
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
:Environmental
Sustainability Index
1
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
:Environmental
Vulnerability Index
1
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:Genuine Progress Indicator
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
::(formerly Index of Sustainable
Economic Welfare)
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
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:Human Development Index
(see List of countries by
HDI)
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
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:Legatum Prosperity Index
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:Index of Sustainable
Economic Welfare
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
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:Sustainable Governance Indicators.
The Status Index ranks 30 OECD
countries in terms of sustainable
reform performance
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
:Water Poverty Index [
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/sections/ph/documen
ts/narf_054.pdf] Sullivan, C.A. et al. (eds)
2003. The water poverty index:
development and application at the
community scale. Natural Resources
Forum 27: 189-199.
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
:Many environmental problems
ultimately relate to the human effect
on those global biogeochemical
cycles that are critical to life. Over the
last decade monitoring these cycles
has become a more urgent target for
research:
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:Sustainability auditing and reporting are
used to evaluate the sustainability
performance of a company, organization,
or other entity using various performance
indicators.Hill, J. 1992. Towards Good
Environmental Practice. The Institute of
Business Ethics, London. Popular auditing
procedures available at the global level
include:
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:* Triple Bottom Line Accounting
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:* input-output analysis can be used
for any level of organization with a
financial budget. It relates
environmental impact to expenditure
by calculating the resource intensity
of goods and services.
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
* 'Development and NGO project
auditing'
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:Litmus test type indicators are also used
in the development and NGO community
to test conformity and compliance with the
guidelines of sustainable human
development and the international Rio
Declaration of 1992.
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:* Sustainable development indicator for
NGOs and Other
Organizations“Sustainable Development
Indicators for NGOs and Other
Organization, David Lempert and Nguyen
Nhu Hue, International Journal of
Sustainable Societies, 1:1, 2008. Use link:
http://inderscience.metapress.com/app/ho
me/contribution.asp?referrer=parentbackto
=issue,3,6;journal,1,1;linkingpublicationres
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
** Global Reporting Initiative Global
Reporting Initiative modelling and
monitoring procedures. Many of these
have only just been developed.
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
** State of the Environment reporting
provides general background information
on the environment and is progressively
including more indicators.
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
**European sustainability Eurostat.
(2007). Measuring progress towards a
more sustainable Europe. 2007
monitoring report of the EU
sustainable development strategy.[
http://passthrough.fwnotify.net/download/360813/
http://ec.europa.eu/sustainable/docs
/estat_2007_sds_en.pdf] Retrieved on
2009-04-14.
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:Some accounting methods attempt to
include environmental costs rather
than treating them as
Externality|externalities
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
1
:* Green accounting
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Sustainability measurement - Benchmarks, indicators, indexes, auditing etc.
:* Sustainability economics [
http://www.sustainabilityeconomics.de/publ
ications_vjh.html]|Publications on
sustainability measurement used in
sustainability economics
1
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Sustainability measurement - Resource metrics
1
Part of this process can relate to resource
use such as energy accounting or to
economic metrics or price system values
as compared to non-market economics
potential, for understanding resource use.
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Sustainability measurement - Resource metrics
An important task for resource theory
(energy economics) is to develop methods
to optimize resource conversion processes
1
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Sustainability measurement - Energy return on energy investment
1
When oil production first began in the
mid-nineteenth century, the largest oil
fields recovered fifty barrels of oil for
every barrel used in the extraction,
transportation and refining
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Sustainability measurement - Energy return on energy investment
1
Note that it is important to understand
the distinction between a barrel of oil,
which is a measure of oil, and a barrel
of oil equivalent (BOE), which is a
measure of energy
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Sustainability measurement - Growth-based economic models
1
Insofar as economic growth is driven by oil
consumption growth, post-peak societies
must adapt. M. King Hubbert believed:
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Sustainability measurement - Growth-based economic models
Some economists describe the
problem as uneconomic growth or a
false economy. At the political right,
Fred Ikle has warned about
conservatives addicted to the Utopia of
Perpetual Growth. Brief oil
interruptions in 1973 and 1979
markedly slowed - but did not stop the growth of world
GDP.http://www.imf.org/external/np
1
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Sustainability measurement - Growth-based economic models
Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green
Revolution transformed agriculture around
the globe, world grain production
increased by 250%. The energy for the
Green Revolution was provided by fossil
fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas),
pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled
irrigation.[http://wolf.readinglitho.co.uk/mai
npages/agriculture.html How peak oil
could lead to starvation]
1
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Sustainability measurement - Growth-based economic models
1
David Pimentel, professor of ecology and
agriculture at Cornell University, and Mario
Giampietro, senior researcher at the
National Research Institute on Food and
Nutrition (INRAN), place in their study
Food, Land, Population and the U.S
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Sustainability measurement - Hubbert peaks
1
Although Hubbert peak theory receives
most attention in relation to peak oil|peak
oil production, it has also been applied to
other natural resources.
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