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Introduction to Anthropology Anthropology is the science of studying people and their culture. People who study anthropology are called anthropologists. There are four main types of anthropology- include linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, archaeology, and biological or physical anthropology. Each type studies different aspects of people and their respective cultures. Anthropology exists to explore a variety of social phenomena. Benefits associated with this area of research lies in its use of a macro perspective on the development and sustainability of human culture. Anthropologists pose important questions concerning the continuation of poverty, racism, violence and social inequality around the world. It asks the questions why do humans have such different ways of living, thinking and acting? Addressing differences may also include the differences between men and women and how and why this situation continues to exist. From a global context, what impact is technology having on the homogeneity of the new global community? Communication technology increases the transmission of ideas and culture across vast distances allowing for the extension of cultural beliefs. Like the other areas of the social sciences, there are specialized areas that focus on a particular area of anthropology. Functionalism (Robert K. Merton) Robert King Merton bases his interpretation of society using the functionalist perspective. He believes that it is necessary to interpret social data by their consequences for larger structures in which they are implicated . An important part of his theory is also the relationship of shared values between society and its institutions. Merton explains how expected consequences, manifest functions, and unintended consequences, latent functions, impact on the functioning of society . Merton is famous for coining the pharase "self-fulfilling prophecy." He also created the other phrases that are frequently used, such as "role model" and "unintended consequences.” Functionalism is a method for understanding how social institutions fill social needs. Every custom or practice in society provides a form of stability for the entire system. This seems like a grand theory but social institutions provide for the physical and psychological needs for its society members. Having established laws, customs, and agreed upon practices provides a sense of predictability and stability within a society. In order to understand a society, researchers must understand the function of social institutions and their respective contributions to the stability to their society. An anthropologist looks to explain the practices, not judge them on their validity. Merton believed that not all institutions contribute positively to the stability of society. He saw that some structures benefited only a specific section of society. A difference in power creates tension and a place of potential conflict. Instead of institutions handling all potential areas of power struggle there could be alternatives to address these issues allowing for increased population stability. A critique of functionalism is that all institutions are considered to provide stability, when this is not the case. Some practices produce negative outcomes, which increase the instability within a society. The presence of family violence produces instability in the culture with a difference in power among the different sexes. What positive function does this serve for society? And why should its continuation as an institution be ensured? Does it really create a more stable society? Other important functionalist researchers include: Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead and Bronislaw Malinowski. Structuralism (Claude Levi Strauss, Mary Douglas) Being social beings we like the idea of predictability and familiarity. How do we foster a social idea, and reinforce it in a society to make it a norm? Reinforcement of a norm or a value increases the acceptance of the practice within a given society. The existence of a societal value is explained if it fulfills a function. For example, North American society values the concept of romantic love and close friendship. This social idea is reinforced through media and national celebrations. One example where love is reinforced is through the celebration of a holiday dedicated to acts of affection and showing someone that you care, Valentine’s Day. Gifts, greeting cards, candies, flowers, and sentimental gestures are typically given to women, by men, as symbols of showing affection or close friendship. This celebration happens every year but the idea of love continues even after the holiday has ended. During the time of the holiday the mass media provide visual and audio examples of people in love and performing loving acts by giving gifts or making sentimental gestures. The norm of loving is accepted as a normal practice because of the reinforcements such as this. In Japan there is a slightly different value attached to Valentine’s Day. It is the Japanese women who give chocolate to the men. After a man receives his Valentine’s gift he is supposed to return to favour and give a gift cookies or candies, on White day one month later, on March 14 th. Two different practices reinforce similar ideas. Why is there not one uniform love celebration, practiced world-wide, to show affection? Different societies’ institutions reinforce different values. Structuralists believe that meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture through activities and various practices that show their significance. For example, anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss looked at the significance of how food is prepared. Different societies have varieties of methods of producing food that require the teachings of prior generations on techniques as well as proportions for ingredients. Other practices that can be studied include religious rites, games, forms of entertainment, art, and literacy texts which show how meaning produces and is reproduced within a given culture. Cultural Materialism (Carlo Ember, Stephen Sanderson, Marvin Harris) Human existence is a response to the diverse and complex problems that exist in society. That is, human reproductions (procreation) and production (of goods and services) are intertwined with elements in our environment. Social beliefs must be compatible with existing structures in the living environment, which includes the means of producing and reproducing goods as well as the need for physical reproduction. According to Marvin Harris a change in a technology or practice may cause a shift in the cultural beliefs held by a society. Individuals in a society must adopt new technological changes in order for its citizens to thrive and survive in the changing environment. The introduction of the computer has revolutionized North American society. Computers are used in business, in education, government, law enforcement, etc. as a means of transmitting vast amounts of information in a short period of time. In schools, they have changed the way we learn, find research, communicate with friends, complete homework, and organize our day. Schools have adapted by offering courses online, in classrooms using the computers, having registration online, training its staff to use specialized programs, mark collection and distribution, and many other activities. Teachers need to adapt and learn the new interfaces as well as how to use it as communication tool. Not adapting to the changes reduces the ability of a teacher to do his/her job when many work functions are being moved to the digital interface. This example of cultural materialism demonstrates the necessity of humans to adapt to current material trends and technology in order to thrive as a society and a culture. Questions: 1. In detail, describe the theory of functionalism. 2. What are social institutions? How does Merton incorporate the concept of “social institutions” into his theory? 3. What is a critique of functionalist theory? 4. What do structuralists believe about the workings of society? 5. Explain the theory of cultural materialism. Provide examples to explain.