Download Unit 1 Introduction to Anthropology Theory - HSB4M

Introduction to Anthropology
Anthropology is the science of studying people and their culture. People who
study anthropology are called anthropologists. There are four main types of
anthropology- include linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, archaeology,
and biological or physical anthropology. Each type studies different aspects of
people and their respective cultures.
Anthropology exists to explore a variety of social phenomena. Benefits
associated with this area of research lies in its use of a macro perspective on the
development and sustainability of human culture. Anthropologists pose important
questions concerning the continuation of poverty, racism, violence and social
inequality around the world. It asks the questions why do humans have such
different ways of living, thinking and acting? Addressing differences may also
include the differences between men and women and how and why this situation
continues to exist. From a global context, what impact is technology having on
the homogeneity of the new global community? Communication technology
increases the transmission of ideas and culture across vast distances allowing
for the extension of cultural beliefs. Like the other areas of the social sciences,
there are specialized areas that focus on a particular area of anthropology.
Functionalism (Robert K. Merton)
Robert King Merton bases his interpretation of society using the functionalist
perspective. He believes that it is necessary to interpret social data by their
consequences for larger structures in which they are implicated . An important
part of his theory is also the relationship of shared values between society and its
institutions. Merton explains how expected consequences, manifest functions,
and unintended consequences, latent functions, impact on the functioning of
society . Merton is famous for coining the pharase "self-fulfilling prophecy." He
also created the other phrases that are frequently used, such as "role model" and
"unintended consequences.”
Functionalism is a method for understanding how social institutions fill social
needs. Every custom or practice in society provides a form of stability for the
entire system. This seems like a grand theory but social institutions provide for
the physical and psychological needs for its society members. Having
established laws, customs, and agreed upon practices provides a sense of
predictability and stability within a society. In order to understand a society,
researchers must understand the function of social institutions and their
respective contributions to the stability to their society. An anthropologist looks to
explain the practices, not judge them on their validity.
Merton believed that not all institutions contribute positively to the stability of
society. He saw that some structures benefited only a specific section of society.
A difference in power creates tension and a place of potential conflict. Instead of
institutions handling all potential areas of power
struggle there could be alternatives to address
these issues allowing for increased population
stability.
A critique of functionalism is that all institutions are
considered to provide stability, when this is not the
case. Some practices produce negative outcomes,
which increase the instability within a society. The
presence of family violence produces instability in the culture with a difference in
power among the different sexes. What positive function does this serve for
society? And why should its continuation as an institution be ensured? Does it
really create a more stable society?
Other important functionalist researchers include: Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead
and Bronislaw Malinowski.
Structuralism
(Claude Levi Strauss, Mary Douglas)
Being social beings we like the idea of predictability and familiarity. How do we
foster a social idea, and reinforce it in a society to make it a norm?
Reinforcement of a norm or a value increases the acceptance of the practice
within a given society. The existence of a societal value is explained if it fulfills a
function. For example, North American society values the concept of romantic
love and close friendship. This social idea is reinforced through media and
national celebrations. One example where love is reinforced is through the
celebration of a holiday dedicated to acts of affection and showing someone that
you care, Valentine’s Day. Gifts, greeting cards, candies, flowers, and
sentimental gestures are typically given to women, by men, as symbols of
showing affection or close friendship. This celebration happens every year but
the idea of love continues even after the holiday has ended. During the time of
the holiday the mass media provide visual and audio examples of people in love
and performing loving acts by giving gifts or making sentimental gestures. The
norm of loving is accepted as a normal practice because of the reinforcements
such as this.
In Japan there is a slightly different value attached to Valentine’s Day. It is the
Japanese women who give chocolate to the men. After a man receives his
Valentine’s gift he is supposed to return to favour and give a gift cookies or
candies, on White day one month later, on March 14 th. Two different practices
reinforce similar ideas. Why is there not one uniform love celebration, practiced
world-wide, to show affection? Different societies’ institutions reinforce different
values.
Structuralists believe that meaning is
produced and reproduced within a culture
through activities and various practices
that show their significance. For example,
anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss
looked at the significance of how food is
prepared. Different societies have
varieties of methods of producing food
that require the teachings of prior
generations on techniques as well as
proportions for ingredients. Other
practices that can be studied include religious rites, games, forms of
entertainment, art, and literacy texts which show how meaning produces and is
reproduced within a given culture.
Cultural Materialism
(Carlo Ember, Stephen Sanderson, Marvin Harris)
Human existence is a response to the diverse and complex problems that exist in
society. That is, human reproductions (procreation) and production (of goods and
services) are intertwined with elements in our environment. Social beliefs must
be compatible with existing structures in the living environment, which includes
the means of producing and reproducing goods as well as the need for physical
reproduction. According to Marvin Harris a change in a technology or practice
may cause a shift in the cultural beliefs held by a society. Individuals in a society
must adopt new technological changes in order for its citizens to thrive and
survive in the changing environment. The introduction of the computer has
revolutionized North American society. Computers are used in business, in
education, government, law enforcement, etc. as a means of transmitting vast
amounts of information in a short period of time. In schools, they have changed
the way we learn, find research, communicate with friends, complete homework,
and organize our day. Schools have adapted by offering courses online, in
classrooms using the computers, having registration online, training its staff to
use specialized programs, mark collection and distribution, and many other
activities. Teachers need to adapt and learn the new interfaces as well as how to
use it as communication tool. Not adapting to the changes reduces the ability of a
teacher to do his/her job when many work functions are being moved to the
digital interface. This example of cultural materialism demonstrates the necessity
of humans to adapt to current material trends and technology in order to thrive as
a society and a culture.
Questions:
1. In detail, describe the theory of functionalism.
2. What are social institutions? How does Merton incorporate the concept of
“social institutions” into his theory?
3. What is a critique of functionalist theory?
4. What do structuralists believe about the workings of society?
5. Explain the theory of cultural materialism. Provide examples to explain.