Download Ramesside_Egypt_Dynasties_XIX[1](ZAIN)

Ramesside Egypt Dynasties XIX, and X
Syllabus Dot Point: 1. the geographical environment
Geographical setting, natural features and resources of New Kingdom Egypt and its neighbours.
Background:
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Egyptians saw natural environment as order and disorder
The believed that the world was created when the land arose from the water of chaos
Creation of life based on the principal of Maat (divine order). The opposite of Maat was isfet
(chaos and disorder.)
Maat was a religious concept and a reflection of the natural environment.
Geographical features: The Nile
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The Nile was a central factor in Egyptian life.
The flooding of the Nile (inundation) was essential as it rarely rained in Egypt. It allowed for
the growing of crops as it flooded the plains and deposited fertile silt.
River god/spirit was Hapi (fat man with woman’s breasts,) he was a symbol of fertility
For the Egyptian’s a poor flood = hunger, hardship and famine.
Two main sources of the river:
o White Nile from Lake Victoria
o Blue Nile form the highlands of Ethiopia
Fertile strips of land on Nile banks span from 3-18 kilometres
South West of Memphis water flows in to a lush area known as Faiyum
Upper Egypt: the lower 800 km of Faiyum is known as Lower Egypt.
Lower Egypt: north of Memphis where river fans out into branches (lush with lots of wildlife)
Geographical features: the land
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Fertile banks around the Nile where known as the Kmt (Black Land), these areas were lush,
fertile and ordered.
Desert was known as the Deshret or the red land, and was seen as an area of chaos and
danger.
Desert contained natural resources, which were exploited by the pharaoh on mining
expeditions.
Egypt considered two lands: Upper and Lower Egypt
The Pharaoh united these lands and this duality is represented in the double crown of Upper
and Lower Egypt.
People lived on the east bank and buried the dead on the west bank
Central government controlled water supplies, undertook irrigation, resurvey the lands after
the floods and provided employment to the agricultural workers.
Religious beliefs were derived from the natural environment e.g. Hapi god of the Nile, Re
god of the Sun, and Seth god of the desert.
Sun and River showed cycle of death regeneration and rebirth which was influenced
Egyptians beliefs about the afterlife.
Geographical features: resources
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Nile made black land fertile for the growing of (emmer-wheat, barley, flax, fruit and veg) as
well as livestock
Nile also a source for birds and fish
Nile provided Papyrus which was used to make small boats and write on
Red land provided natural resources that were exploited by the Pharaohs’ mining
expeditions.
Natural Feature’s and Resources of Egypt’s Neighbours:
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Egypt lacking in timber, iron, silver, tin and lead.
Nubia: rich in gold’s, cereal and cattle. Also the corridor to the rest of Africa which provided
(ivory, ebony, incense, myrrh, animal skins etc.
Palestine: lacked resources. Important corridor for other countries like Syria and
Mesopotamia.
Babylos: supply of cedar wood. Egypt and Hittites fought over this area. Rameses II married
Hittite princess to cement alliance.
Cyprus: major source of copper. Copper needed to make bronze, which weapons, tools and
armour were made from.
Exchange via merchant ships: from Syria, Greek and Crete. Emmer-wheat traded fro opium,
spices, oil, unguents, and exotic manufactured goods.
Significant sites:
Per-Ramesses:
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New administrative city in the east Delta called Per Ramesses
Initiated by Ramesses II
Extension of Seti’s summer palace
Features included (elaborate balconies and large halls, military barracks, temples,
administration buildings, office buildings, glaze factory, recreational lake, zoological garden,
and a harbour.
Allowed for goods and troops to be transported from the Mediterranean Sea and greater
control for the Pharaoh of the northern areas.
Valley of the Kings and Queens
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Majority of the Pharaohs’ in New Kingdom Egypt were buried in the Valley of the Knigs
Located to the West of Thebes
Valley had two main branches
Tomb entrances sealed and necropolis police patrolled the site
Mortuary temples where rituals were performed and offerings were made were built closer
to the west bank of the Nile.
Queens and offspring often buried in the Valley of the Queens located to Km south of the
valley of Kings.
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One of the most elaborate tombs in the Valley of Queens was Nefatari, who was Ramesses II
wife.
Deir-el-Medina:
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Town of the tomb workers whom worked at the Valley of the Kings and Valley of
Queens.
Town was populated by artisans
Walled town on the edge of the desert on the West Bank of Thebes.
Built tombs throughout the 18th, 19th and 29th dynasty
During the economic hardship of later Ramesside period, they had the first recorded
strike in history.
Syllabus Dot Point: 2. Social structure and political organisation
Role and Images of the Pharaoh; concept of Maat
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King who represented gods on earth
Had to ensure Maat (divine order) was achieved/maintained. He ensured that there was
truth, justice and harmony between men and the gods.
King united Upper and Lower Egypt
Immortal god in his official position as well as a mortal in his private life.
New Kingdom: pharaoh’s expressed divinity via erecting temples where they were
worshipped. Most of the new kingdom Pharaoh’s added to the temple of Amun at Karnak as
well as restoring other temples.
In order to show devotion to the gods the king
o Restored temples
o Performed rituals
o Built temples
o Dedicated statues
o Restored temples
o Erected obelisks
Pharaoh seen as incarnation of Horus, son of Osiris.
Ideally Kingship passed from father to son.
The successor to the Pharaoh, built and maintained temples for their predecessor
Symbols of kingship: false beard and bulls tail + various sceptres and crowns
Protector of Ra’s cattle (people) he had shapards crook
Punisher of the wicked held a whip or flail
Peace he held a power sceptre
War he held a mace
King had five names:
o Son of Re name (birth name)
o King of Upper and Lower Eqypt name (given on coronation)
o Horus title
o Goddess of Upper and Lower Egypt title (two ladies title)
o Golden Horus Title
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The top two names used on the cartouches
In essence Pharaoh led all activities in Egypt
He was assisted by thousands of government officials
Pharaoh represented the union of secular and religious powers.
Positions included:
o Head of civil government (taxation, justice, building, quarrying and canals
o Commander in chief of the military: in the Ramesside period a greater emphasis was
placed on the king and his role as “warrior king “the Pharaoh was seen as the
protector of Egypt. Main symbol for the role of army leader was a Sphinx. The
Pharaoh was taught to be a warrior at a young age learning archery, chariotry and
managing horses. King often hunted wild animals to signify his power over
wild/chaotic elements of the physical world.
o High priest of all the temples
o Upholder of maat
o Intermediary between the people and the gods
o Control over the civil service, judiciary, state treasuries and trade
o Responsible for inundation and annual harvest
Each of the 3 areas had complex bureaucracies which were managed by officials
Pharaoh’s palaces and estates managed by chancellor and chief steward.
Pharaoh would also be present at ceremonies and reception for foreign visitors wearing his
traditional regalia.
He was always considers to be superior to the other kings of the ancient world.
After the upheaval of the Amana period there was very much a return to the traditional
beliefs and restoring kingship as the centre of religious practice.
This manifested in the dynasty as:
o Prominence given to Amun
o Construction of temples and obelisks dedicated to gods
o Pharaoh’s tracing their lineage to the gods and referring to their father as gods
(constructing their mortuary temples and maintaining them)
o Kings promoting themselves as Gods by erecting statues, assigning divine names,
and worship of kings at various temples.
Role of the Vizier and the members of the religious, administrative and military elite
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Government was divided into two sections: internal administration and external
administration.
The internal administration
o The royal domain
o Civil administration
o Religious Administration
o Military Administration
The external/ imperial administration
o Governors of the Three Northern Lands (Syria, Palestine)
o Governor of the Southern Lands (Nubia)
o Local Princes
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o Deputies
Two viziers: second in command after the Pharaoh
One for both Upper and Lower Egypt
Only the Viziers could supervise the official movement of parties/ goods throughout Egypt.
Duties included: collection of taxes and tributes, civil order, building works, mining
expeditions, hearing of serious law cases, supervised the civil service below them, liaised
with the high priests and carried out the wishes of the Pharaoh, attended ceremonies at
Thebes etc.
One Vizier was also the minister for war
Role of the Civil Administration:
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Under the viziers were the:
o Overseers of the treasury
o Overseers of the granaries of upper and lower Egypt
o Overseers of the works of the king
o Overseers of the king’s documents and various other departments
o Chief Steward
o Chamberlain of the Royal Palace
o Scribe of the Fields of the Lord of the Two Lands
Men could hold more than one position at a time.
Under these were nomarchs who governed the nomes of Egypt. The country was divided
into 42 nomes.
Each Nome had a: treasury, court of justice, land office, service for dykes and canals, militia
and a host of scribes.
Nubia was outside of Egypt and was controlled by the Viceroy of Kush
Role of the Religious Administration:
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Pharaoh was head priest of all cults.
Religious admin controlled by the overseers of prophets of all the gods (either the vizier or
the Chief Priest of Amun.
Temples had own parallel administration and were semi-autonomous
Each temple had hierarchy of official and huge civil service of scribes
Only full time priests were the four high priest (the first to the fourth prophets)
Chief priest: responsible for daily cleansing, presenting offerings to gods, and temple rituals
Second prophet: responsible for the economic organisation of the temple, controlled its
estates, workshops and stores.
Temples controlled agricultural land, workers, craftsmen and livestock
Temples became very powerful in the 20th dynasty owning up to 20% of the land
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Most priests part time and worked on a rotation basis (they ended up working a total of
three months a year) then they returned to their usual profession.
Temples provided wages for the priests during their time at the temple as well as for the
workers at Deir-el-Medina.
Temples were exempt from tax; Pharaoh could requisition land, grain and wealth at any
time.
Priests, when they served were required to (shaven whole body, wash four times a day,
wore clean clothes and papyrus sandals, eat only certain foods (fish and tobacco may have
been forbidden), and abstained from sexual intercourse.)
High priests differing attire and performed various duties.
o Lector priests (recited rituals) wore a ribbon across the chest
o Sem- performed rituals priests wore leopard skins
Ordinary priests were known as wab-preists (carried sacred objects, sacrificed animals and
carried the sacred boat during processions) and women could only serve as chantresses.
Temples and Priesthoods became increasingly influential during the 19th and 20th dynasty,
and Pharaoh’s were inclined to gain their support through gifts etc.
Role of the Military Administration
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Pharaoh head of the army, assisted by the viziers
Army was full-time and professional, with full hierarchy
Under the Pharaoh and Vizier was the council of Generals (they would confer with the
Pharaoh and Vizier before battle.
Army made up of divisions (3-4) named after the gods
Each division had 5000 troops, each division had 20 companies with 250 men led by
standard bearers, and each company had 5 platoons of 50 led by the chief of fifty.
Each level had its own officers and scribes
Army was a place where social and economic position could be advanced. Ambitious lower
class men, through service in the army could gain gold, land and servants.
Nature and Role of the Army
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Two main sections of the army (infantry and chariotry)
Made up mostly of infantry and foot soldiers
Weapons: bows, kopesh (curved sword originally from Palestine) arrows, slings, spears, axes,
and maces
Defence: helmets oval shields covered with hide, light body armour with either padded
fabric, bronze scales or short sleeved mail coat
Chariot units (2 archers per chariot.) They were considered to be the elite unit of the Army.
Egyptian chariot were light, with two wheels and drawn by two horses. The driver was often
unarmed and the passenger with either bows, javelin’s etc.
Army transported up and down the Nile by boat and were trained to fight at sea.
Army was full time and professional (could be supplemented by young men from nomes)
In a religious sense, the Pharaoh used the army to maintain maat by defeating/conquering
chaos
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Examples of military expeditions include: Ramesses II battles at Kadesh, and Ramesses III
battles with the Libyans and Sea Peoples
Army was used to guard Egypt’s fortresses on its borders.
Used to maintain order and movement of peoples like a police force
Used on mining expedition as protection, guard and order
Soldiers rewarded for bravery and loyalty with decorative symbols, slaves, land grants or
booty.
Army also used mercenaries such as Nubian medjay troops, as well an elite corps of
foreigners which included Nubian archers
Army was a formidable force during this time and were able to conquer the lands to the
Euphrates River.
Control was re-established over Palestine and Phoenicia
Important military campaigns included:
Ramesses I campaign against Phoenicia
Seti I campaign against Syria
Ramesses II battle of Kadesh
Ramesses III defeat of the Sea Peoples
Role and Status of Royal and Non-royal women
Royal Women
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Pharaoh had a number of wives; royal wife was the hemet news weret.
The chief wife was second in charge from the pharaoh
Associated with the god Maat and Hathor
Accompanied the king during religious festivals and other important events
She owned her own palace
Position of God’s Wife of Amun held by royal wife or princess
They could:
o Administer property
o Donate goods to temple and loyal officials
o Appoint nobles to official posts and direct services from them
There is evidence that some royal wives were literate e.g. Tuya and Nefatari.
Mother of the king = mwt news, was very important in the royal family
When royal wives of Ramesses II died, his town daughters were made royal wives. Daughters
often just filled the ceremonial rule. In some cases their role was more than ceremonial.
Diplomatic marriages too place to secure alliances and good relations. Foreign pricesses
were married. Ramesses II married a Hittite princess.
Egyptian princesses however were never given to foreigners.
Harem of the Pharaoh included:
o Principal wives
o Secondary wives
o Female servants
o Weavers
o Nurses for the royal children
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Great royal wife could also rule as a regent until the royal child was old enough to be the
Pharaoh e.g. Tawosret rule while Siptah was old enough. She conducted mining expeditions
and ruled with full monarch titulary.
Other notable royal women:
o Tuya: wife of Seti I and mother of Ramesses II. Shrine dedicated to her and Nefatari
at the Ramessum. Honoured by Ramesses II at Abu Simbel, Ramessum and PerRamesses
o Nefatari: Chief wife of Ramesses II, accompanied Ramesses on ceremonial occasions,
temple dedicated to her at Abu Simbel, lavish tomb in the VOQ.
Non-royal women
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Derived status from their husband. Men dominate public life, and the common attitude was
that the women’s role was in the household. However, their rights were comparatively
higher than others in ancient societies.
Organised the household and brought up the children
Often married at the age of thirteen
Wealthier women had servants whom she supervise to run the household
Wealthy men had more than one wife
Women of poorer classes performed menial tasks as well as hard labour alongside men
They had professions (bakers, weavers, musicians, chantresses, millers, merchants,
household servants, brewers, textile workers, minor court officials, nurses, harem members,
professional mourner, and dancer)
They has similar social and economic freedoms as men
o Conduct business transactions
o Borrow and lend money
o Could act as a witness in court
o Own and inherit property
o Own and rent land
o Bring about legal cases
o Held 1/3 of jointly owned property
o Initiate marriage or divorce and remarry
Better rights than others in the ancient world
Ostraca at Deir-el-Medina suggests that some ordinary women were literate
Women depicted artistically as slim and pale (due to being inside)
Spent a large proportion of adult life pregnant
Evidence of contraceptives
Men were required to be faithful, and adultery was a grounds for divorce
Scribes
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Sesh, cornerstone of society and highly regarded
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Entire class of bureaucratic officials
The religious, political, economic system was dependant on the scribes
Essential to the organisation and the government management of village life
Roles included:
o Checked records
o Took records
o Granted/denied permission to low level requests
o Drew up wills and private documents for the illiterate
o Census
o Tax collecting
o Surveying
o Customs duties
o Administration for the army
o Administration for temples
Profession often passes from father to son, but was open to all people
Trained in the house of life from the age of five, which was linked to the major temples
o Equipment included:
o Stone/wooden palette
o Two cakes of ink
o Small leather bag which held
o Water and brushes
Trained to write in the hieroglyphs, or the quicker hieratic texts.
Scribes could rise in social class without connections and were considered to be a
representation of the middle class.
Artisans
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Employed in royal workshop, temples workshops, or private workshops of senior officials
High quality carving and woodworking for furniture and boat building
Semi-precious stones used in inlays
Faience used in decorative objects and amulets
Gold used in jewellery
Bow drill used to make holes in beads
Stone vessels and inscriptions were made and carved from stone using drills and copper
chisels
Hard stone pounders and polishing stones, fed with sand as abrasive were also used
Building stone quarried by cutting a series of holes, then diving timber wedges into them.
Water was them poured over the timber to make it expand and cracks the stone in the
desired lines.
Deir-el-medina was a village of artisans
Agricultural Workers
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Represented a bulk of the population
Worked on the estates of the pharaohs, the temples or senior officials
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Roles:
o Irrigated land
o Cultivated fields
o Herded animals
o Kept fowl
Land ploughed, seed broadcast by hand, land trampled by sheep goats and pigs.
When harvesting season came crops were cut with wooden sickles
Threshed using oxen, winnowed and stored,
In gardens near houses and on mud dykes the peasant grew vegetables (onions, beans,
melons, dates, figs, grapes and pomegranates.
Syllabus Dot Point: 3. the Economy
Importance of the Nile: agriculture, animal husbandry and transport
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Inundation of the Nile and the crops it produce, was the basis of the economy
Level of the flood was recorded by the Nilometre at both Aswan and Memphis
Nilometre was a series of steps where the height of the Nile flood could be measured.
Rituals and sacrifices were performed at the Nilometre to summon the force of the flood.
The Pharaoh and the god Hapi were considered central to the flooding of the Nile.
Flood of the Nile determined the calendar
o Akhet (inundation)
o Peret (springtime, crop began to emerge)
o Shemu (harvest time)
Irrigation system used earth dykes and canals (trapped water and silt)
Central admin. Responsible for organising clearing of canals and re-established boundaries
90% of people were in agriculture and worked on the land of the Pharaoh, or that which he
granted to the temples.
Amun of Thebes the riches temple/god with large estates through the land
Temple had to pay (agricultural workers, temple priests, artisans, general servants, and tax
on (grain, cattle, and other agricultural produce.)
Pharaoh employed corvees for clearing canals once flood receded
The height of the flood determined the prosperity of the county, if there was a poor flood,
starvation may occur.
Land could produce two crops a year, but the second harvest had to be done by hand.
A Shaduf was a tool used to lift water from the river into irrigation ditches.
Herd level and crop numbers were recorded by the scribes
Cereals and linens were Egypt’s main exports
Nile was rich with fish that were caught by nets and traps.
Birds were caught using large clapnets
Nile was used for transporting men, grain, animals and stone
Used as a highways with small papyrus skiffs ranging to large barges.
Current took boats northwards, and prevailing wind allowed them to sail south
Harbours and ports could be used by traders
Illustrations suggest that funeral processions only cross river with official permission.
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Boats were common form of transport
Egyptians believed that the gods travelled on boats (re- the sun god travels across the sky on
a boat)
Crafts and Industry: wood, stone and metal
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Worked in royal or temple workshops, or in the community at Deir-el-Medina
Pharaoh supplied the raw materials in the process through gifts to temples or individuals
Comfortable living, and above those of parents. Skill usually passed down from father to son.
Woodworkers used a variety of tools and the finished goods were said to be of high quality
Carpenters used:
o Palm
o Sycamore
o Tamarisk
o Ash
To make:
o Furniture
o Columns
o Boats
o Chariots
o Bow and arrows
o Musical instruments
o Roof joists
o Coffins
o Statues
Cedar was imported from Lebanon, and used on the best boasts and coffins
Ebony (tropical Africa) used for furniture and veneering
Wood could be decorated:
o Guiding
o Veneering
o Inlays of ivory, gemstone or glass
Leather workers made (bows, chariots, harnesses and sandals.
Brick making was a strenuous job and often done by slaves. Bricks formed in a sun-dried
mould and used in the building of private houses etc.
Masons/ stoneworkers: worked various stone mined in the desert as well as created statues,
stone vessels and sarcophagi.
Copper used in basic tools
Metal workers used local copper mixed with imported tin to produce bronze (weapons),
mirrors, statues and ritual vessels.
Bronze was strong, thus there was a heavy demand for tin and copper
Smiths heated metals in furnaces, using a bellow to increase the fire temperature, tongs to
handle the metal, anvils and hammers to beat it.
Gold mined and worked to produce jewellery, statues and coffins.
Jewellery produced collars, bracelets, pectorals, earrings.
During the Ramesside period there was a massive demand for craftsmen:
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To complete the plethora of building projects
Furnish tombs with high quality fittings
Supply the army with weapons and chariots.
Economic exchange: unit of value, taxation, tribute and trade
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Main system of exchange was barter
Surplus produce could be exchange for others at riverside markets
Trade/barter was regulated by an official called a shuty
Shuty travelled up and down the Nile exchanging surplus goods on behalf of temples or
individuals.
Evidence suggests that the shuty were unfair + unpopular and often mistreated the poorer
farmers.
Standard measurement for metals was the Deben (93 grams), a kite was 1/10 of a Deben.
Also used to describe the value of non-metric goods. Evidence suggests that a bed was
worth 25 Deben and a goat, 3 deben.
The Deben was based on:
o Based on the weight of metals, oils or gains
o Measured against stone weights
Grain and cereal measured in bushels
Post 1580 BC: set weights gold, silver and copper + fixed weights made of hard polished
stones, geometrically shaped with rounded corners, which their weight mark cut into them.
According to Ostraka the prices of metal remain relatively constant from the 12th – 17th
dynasty. (Silver half the price of gold, copper 1/100 value of silver)
Internal tax system administered by the Pharaoh, with people paying tax in kind.
Scribes measure the harvest yield and assessed the tax payable.
Increases in herd count were accounted by scribes and were taxable.
Farmers orchards, vineyards, gardens were also taxed
Fisherman and hunters also had to pay a proportion if their yield.
Temples usually exempt from tax, but this could be revoked at any time.
Tax paid to nomarch who redistributed to pay agricultural workers, temples and other
expenses of the king.
Proportion of the tax due was determined by the height of the inundation.
The Nilometre was an indicator of prosperity or paucity of crops.
Nubia considered part of Egypt, and was taxed in the same way
Tribute and trade were the two principle sources of economic wealth in Egypt
Tribute refers to the contribution paid by foreign rulers as a sign of submission. They were
paid annually to the Pharaoh by vassal states. It was payment from subject states to the
dominant king of egypt
Tributes include:
o Harvest yield from vassals to supply garrisons of the Egyptian army that were
stationed locally, the rest went to the Pharaoh’s granaries
o Male and Female slaves: that worked in mining, quarries or on major construction
works.
o Metals (lead, silver and copper)
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o Semi precious stones (lapis lazuli, rock crystal)
o Finely crafted vessel
o Herds of animals
o Timber
Tributes were paid by the city states in Palestine and some of Syria, but as the Hittites took
control of northern Syria during the time of Ramesses III, even this ceased.
Trade occurred between the developed Mediterranean states and the near east in the form
of diplomatic gifts.
Egyptians did portray these gifts as tribute in some cases, but the kings of Egypt, Babylon,
Hattie, and Assyria saw themselves as brother.
Egypt, in the nineteenth dynasty, under Merenptah, sent grain to the Hittites.
Trading expeditions took place, via the order of the Pharaoh. Leaders from towns visited by
the trading expeditions sometimes journey back with the convoy to present gifts to the
Pharaoh (Chief of Punt)
Egypt often had a surplus of grain and gold, it desired to trade these goods with other
countries for metals (silver, copper and tin), semi precious stones, and timber.
Money inflows to the pharaoh’s coffer included:
o Taxations
o Estate revenue
o Tribute
o Trade
o Booty
o Quarrying
Money redistributed to pay:
o Administration
o Military
o Building projects
o Workshops
o Gifts to temples/ mortuary temples
o Diplomatic trading
Technological developments: tools, building materials, techniques and construction, Shaduf
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New Kingdom, technological developments increase due to the connection with other parts
of the world.
Shaduf: was an irrigation tool used to lift water from the Nile into canals. This tool allowed
for the second harvest. After the flood had receded, water could still be lifted into the canals
and used in the agricultural process.
The Shaduf consists of a long wooden pole with a receptacle at one end, and a counter
balance weight at the other end.
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Bellows were used in the metallurgy process as well as others. It was a clay vessel covered
by leather, which allowed air to be pumped into the fire, which increase it temperature.
With a hotter fire, metal could be made harder.
Pottery wheels with a pivoted turntable were introduced. They could now be turned by foot
of by an assistant.
Mathematics: Egyptians had a good understating of maths and were able to calculate area
and volume.
Their system of measurement was the royal cubit, which was the size of a man’s forearm
(52.4cm). Divided further into 7 palm widths.
Astrology: the positioning of all temples were fixed using the constellations of the Great
Bear and Orion.
Jewellery use of gold wire and artificial stones in jewellery
Ship building: an improvement in the techniques used to build ships.
Looms instrument used to weave thread into fabric, upright looms with perpendicular fames
developed in this period.
Conical ovens allowed for greater quantities of goods to be cooked more quickly
Later economic problems: workers strike, tomb robberies and corruption
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Towards the end of Ramesses III began economic problems.
Causes include:
o Corruption amongst Theban temples
o Depletion of grain supply
o Loss of influence in Palestine
o Progressively low Nile floods
o Rocketing inflation
o Supply of Nubian gold diminished
o Closure of a number of trade routes
o Termination of copper mining in Sinai
o Donations of land by Ramesses III to the priesthoods at Heliopolis, Memphis, and
thebes.
Effects of economic problems
o Strikes in Deir-el-medina (first ever recorded strikes in the ancient world)
o Tributes from Egypt’s vassals dried up
o Tombworker’s strikes increase, and came under attack from raiding mercenaries
o Drought and famine in lower Nubia
o Discontent and anger amongst the people (tax collectors had to bring guards with
them)
o Corruption among priests rose (stripped gold from the Ramessum and robbed tombs
from the VOK and VOQ.)
o Tomb robberies, although they had occurred in the past, increase in the years of
economic problems as times were tough.
o Suspects of tomb robbers were examined, and often tortured. Records suggest that
some people were found innocent (either corruption or justice.) Guilty people were
impaled on a stake.
Religion, death and burial
 Gods, goddesses, cults and priesthoods: Amun, Re, Ptah, Osiris
 Gods shown in anthropomorphic form. They could be both malevolent and benevolent.
 The king was the link between men and gods. Statues of gods were located in temples
where cults of priest washed and dressed and they performed rituals and offered food/drink
to the gods.
 There were two types of gods: universal gods (those who represent elements) or local gods
(inanimate object worship in nomes, town and provinces.)
 Main gods were organised into family triads.
 Rituals and the shaking of sistrums were ways in which the gods were appeased and chaos
was kept at bay.
 Personal religion: magic and personal piety
 Religion was an important part of the everyday lives of people.
 Household gods that did not have temples were worshipped in the household by burning
incense as well as offering food and libations.
 Normal people did not have access to temples but they could petition at festivals and place
notes, problems could be solved where a question was asked to a god and the direction of
the priest movement carrying the barque would determine a yes or no answer.
 Personal piety was important in the Ramesside era, with people seeing a responsibility for
actions Modesty, humility and other principals became important for success in both lives.
This change is shown through the change in the artworks in tombs where before this there
where scene of everyday life show after this artwork in tombs focussed largely on scenes
showing the dead worshipping, gods, rituals etc.
 Magic was a part of personal religion. At a state level high priest were taught this secret art
as a way of appeasing the gods and maintaining order/ locally, magic was performed by
priest to prevent/cure sicknesses. Magical methods include: spells, potions, dancing,
incense, perfume, wine, water and oil etc.
 Letter to the dead were also employed either to appease a negative deceased of encouraged
positive action from a deceased person.
 Festivals: Opet, Beautiful Feast of the Valley, Heb-Sed festival
 A major part of the Egyptian calendar was festivals; the temple at Medinet Habu states that
there were over 60 festivals. During festivals offerings were presented to gods and bouquets
as well as fine linen were presented to priests and officials.
 Opet festival: took place in the inundation month and lasted 2-4 weeks. Amun triad
transported from Karnak to Luxor. Additionally celebrated the coronation of the king. It was
the symbolic rebirth of god and king.
 Beautiful Feast of the Valley: occurred in the harvest season (Shemu). Amun triad visited
mortuary temples of deceased kings. Gods stayed overnight in a temple and people visited
the tombs of the dead presenting offerings etc. It was a day in the remembrance of the
dead.
 Heb-sed: held 30 years after king coronation, and every five years after that. Two important
factors: gods paying homage to king, and king performing ritual of territorial claim. This
involved running between two set of boundary markers to assert ones dominance and
proving ones strength to continue their role.
 Funerary customs: afterlife concepts and mummification
 There were various elements to the person: physical body, ka, ba akh, name and shadow.
When someone died these elements were provided for thought: mummification, funerary
equipment, states, magical spells etc.
 Ba: refers to the power of the person and was represented as a human head with a bird’s
body. It was free to go wherever but had to return to the tomb at night.
 Ka: spirit or life force of the person. It was represented as a person with their hand over
their head. This resided in the body and required food and drink to be preserved.
Additionally of the body was destroyed it could reside in a statue of the deceased individual.
 Akh: was the successful union of the ba and kha. It was the immortal spirit that passed into
the afterlife to undergo the trials such as the weighting of the heart.
 Shadow mirrored every movement of the body and the name if regularly repeater could
ensure immortality.
 Mummification: Upon death body was taken to ibu. Mummification priest represented
Anubis. The total mummification process to 70 days. Natron was a major part of the
mummification process. Amulets, spell and magic were placed between the bandages.
Mummification processes depended on the wealth of the family.
 Mummy + jars taken for burial in the tomb. Within the tomb, funerary goods, food, flowers,
shabtis, perfume etc. were placed. Opening of the Mouth ceremony was performed where
the mummy was purified and its sense restored. Ox was slaughtered, and mummy placed in
the burial chamber. A feast occurred and the family left to return at intervals with offerings.
 Egyptians believed that if the correct ritual had been undertaken the ba and ka would live in
the tomb and the akh would be sent on a perilous journey this journey entailed:
o Admission unto the underworld though the utterance of the right spells
o 42 to negative confession before 42 different gods
o Hall of the Two Truths where the weighing of the heart ceremony took place. If the
heart was found pure when weighted against the feather of Maat, the individual was
granted passage to the field of reeds. If not their heart was devoured by Thoth.
o The field of reeds was an existence similar to life on the bank of the Nile where the
shabtis would carry out menial duties and a peaceful existence of the afterlife would
be lived out.
 The afterlife for a Pharoah was different
o They became one with Osiris and joined the crew on the barque of Re
o They would travel across the sky and battle the forces of evil with Re Horus, Seth
and all the previous Pharoah.
o They fight evil demand and required to push the boat from reeds and sand banks
 Both Pharaohs and ordinary people had funerary text to explain what they faced in the
afterlife.
 Funerary texts: The Book of the Dead, and the Am Duat (Book of what is in the
Netherworld), The Book of Gates.
 Common funerary texts of the officials was the Book of the Dead, it provided a guideline of
how to overcome the trials of the afterlife, spells to recite etc. Most of the Books only
contained selection of the total repertoire of the book.
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During the Ramesside dynasty, due to the democratization of religion, the book of gates,
which was a royal book, began to appear in non-royal tombs.
 In royal tombs the funerary text were usually painted on the walls and the most common of
thee were the Amduat and the litany of Re.
 In the Ramesside period books like the Book of Gates the Book of caverns, the Book of
heavens and the Book of Horus began to appear and all of their main focus was the journey
of the sun god through the realms of night to be reborn at the start of every day. This
provides a strong link to Re and the Pharoah.
 Amduat traced the journey of the sun through the 12 hours of night, and refers to the
prevailed of order of chaos and ends with the rebirth of the sun in the working.
 By the middle of the twentieth dynasty books like the Book of the Day, the Book of the
Night, and the Book of Earth appear in royal tombs which shows the destiny of the king as
the son of the sun god.
 Temples: architecture and function: Karnak, Luxor, the Ramessum and Medinet Habu.
 There were to types of temples, cult temples of gods and mortuary temples of kings. In cult
temples, the king could approach the gods and make offerings to ensure the prosperity of
Egypt. Mortuary temples in the other hand were where deceased kings were worshipped as
gods. Both temples had the same basic designed
 The temple was the hose of god and also resembles the mound of creation that rose from
the waters of chaos:
o Temples enclosed by a mud-brick wall
o Constructed with alternating concave and convex walls to represent the waters of
chaos.
o Pylons flanked the entrance to the outer open courtyard.
o This led to a hypostyle hall which had pillar with lotus and papyrus shapes which
were designed to represent the lush vegetation of the island.
o Sanctuary was where the statue of the god was kep and rose gradually owardsit to
represent the moun of creation. The roof was decorated beautifully to represent the
sky.
o Scenes such as the foundation of the temple and the coronation of the king were
shown at the outer hall, with scenes of the Pharoah making offerings the the god
places in the sanctuary.
 Temple of Amun at Karnak: largest temple of the Ramesside period. The temple covered an
area of (1.5 x 8) km. Hypostyle halls dedicated to Ramses I and Seti I led to the sanctuary.
Avenue lf human headed sphinxes led to the small temple of mu t as well Luxor
 Luxor: dedicated to Amun it two particular forms: blue painted sky god and the black
painted ithyphallic fertility god.
 The Ramessum: mortuary temple of Ramesses II. Typical temple layout with hypostyle hal
and inner sanctuary with storage room around it. Temples to Tuya and Nefatari located to
the north. Royal palace was in the south west. Artwork included records of bales at Kadesh,
Dapur, and Tunip. Inner areas show Ramesses II being crowned by Amun Re, Khonsu, and
Sekhmet.
 Medinet Habu: is the mortuary temple of Ramesses III as well as the smaller temple of
Amun. Two open courts, three hypostyle halls, and an under sanctuary, with a palace
adjoining to the south west. The tower Midol entrance was where the workers of Deir el
median were forced to retreat during the late 20th dynasty. Outside areas saw artwork of
Ramesses II fighting the Libyans, Sea people and bull hunting.
 Tombs: architecture and decoration: Thebes, Memphis, Deir-el Medina
 Major burial site for officials was at Thebes (West bank), Saqqara or Memphis. Purpose of
the tomb remained the same: protection for the mummy, provision for the ba and ka, places
for family and priest to visit and make offerings.
 Tombs at Saqqara were decorated like temples, with an outer courtyard, and inner areas
decorate with funeral scenes and that of gods, additionally there was a burial chamber
which was undecorated and sealed.
 Tombs at the West Bank of Thebes were cut into the cliff face. They had a courtyard in front
of the entrance doorway. The tomb progressing into the mountain taking the shape of a T.
The chapel area was decorated with scenes of the deceased and of religious artwork.
Underground burial chamber was sealed and undecorated.
 Tombs of the tomb workers at Deir el Medina were also cut into the wall, but had brick built
facades with a pyramidion. Decoration was similar to the officials: the funeral and gods.
Quality of design was magnificent as they were master craftsmen, working without
constraints.
 Royal tombs were located in the VOK or VOQ, mortuary temples were separate and located
closer to the Nile. Architectural conventions used but varied according to rock and religious
changes. Corridors were always 2.6 metres wide and pillars .7 m wide. Most tombs were cut
into the cliff and went further in often changing direction. However, in the 20th dynasty they
tended to be straight to allow the sun to symbolically penetrate it. Decoration tended to be
of the Pharoah with the gods. 19th dynast focussed heavily on the sun, Osiris and its journey.
Cultural life
 Art: sculpture, jewellery and wall paintings
 Revolution of art styles in the Amarna Period, but hr 19th and 20th dynasty saw a reversion
back to the traditional styles of Art. Some aspects still remained such as the differentiation
of hands as well as the vitality of nature. Artwork under Seti was impressive and he used
raised relieve, Ramesses II artwork was not as good quality but on a much larger scale.
 Statues: were used for placement in mortuary temples etc. If a statue was properly
constructed it was capable of holding life and is somewhere offerings could be made to the
deceased. Statues could be objects of worship as they represented kings and gods.
 In tombs there were statues of the individual receiving rites from other individuals and gods.
The major change of style in the Ramesside Dynasty was seating individuals on chairs as well
as a more realistic depiction of the folds and tresses in people’s clothes.
 Jewellery: worn by bother males and females and an indicator of social status. Rich pepl
wore gold, while the poorer used semi precious stones and faience. Pectorals, collars and
fillets were worn by both men and women. Earring introduced by the Hyksos. Naked women
wore girdles and men wore belts to support their kilts. Bracelets and armlets worn, as well
as amulets. Children often had side locks kept together by hair ring or clasp. Jwellery was
made with Gold, silver, and electrum. Gems such as Lapis Lazuli, Carnelian, Turquoise, and
Amethyst were used.
 Wall-paintings: either painted on plaster or carved into the wall. The chipped bit could
wither by sunken or chipped out. The second method is long and requires for the backround
to be chipped out, but when done was beautiful. This was employed by Seti I. One the other
hand Ramesses II utilised the other method as a part of his mass building projects. Battles
scenes are common in these wall reliefs as well as special linkages with the king and the
gods. Artwork in the royal tombs was purely religious and done by the master craftsmen of
Deir –El Medina.
 Ramesside style changes: stucco replaced with thin whitewashed layer of clay. Scenes on the
walls changed from those of everyday life to that of the funeral and the afterlife. Bright
colours more extensively used. Indication of the eyelid, figures were more slender, with
narrower shoulders with the small of the back higher up. Clothing became more elaborate
and women’s clothing was often shown as transparent to represent the fertility aspect.
 Writing and literature: love poetry, The Tale Two Brothers, Horus and Seth, The report of
Wenamun
 Writing includes: annals, offering lists, prayers, hymns, journals, funerary text, mathematica,
diagrammatic texts, onomostrica, decrees, treaties, economic documents, tax documents,
census lists, legal records, trials and wills etc. Entertainment literature had two main genres:
love poems or popular stories/tales.
 Love poetry: was found at Deir –el Medina and are in direct first person. The poem (Chester
Beatty) regularly alternates between two speakers, who are young lovers. They refer to each
other as brother and sister as a term of endearment. Love is reflected in the landscape and
nature.
 Tales: common story is that of the tale of two brothers, about Bata and Anubis. They are two
brothers. It is a ludicrous tale about one brother Bata, who somehow loses his penis and
places his heart in a tree, whose wife marries the Pharoah and he somehow turns into a
tree. He is then cut down and a splinter from the tree which is him impregnates his former
wife how gives birth to Bata WTF! He then becomes king, kills his former wife then dies, and
his bother Anubis becomes king.
 Horus and Seth: follows from the tale of Osiris and Isis. Horus brings his uncle Seth before a
council, presided over by the sun god. Gods are represented as gullible and indecisive and
the case drags on for 80 years. Some consider this as a social commentary of the time.
 Report of Wenamun: appears to be an actual historical account as its evidence has been
corroborated with other sources that enhance its validity. It talks about a man who has been
sent by the Priest of Amun to Babylon to get timber. Wenamun is robbed on his way to
Babylon, and in turn steals from a Tjeker ship. Tjeker-Baal, prince of Babylon refuses to trade
by Wenamun said the timber should be given as everything belongs to Amun. He receives
the trade, but the Tjeker ship arrives and he is forced to flee.
Everyday life
 Daily life and leisure activities
 Daily life in ancient Egypt also revolved around the Nile. For the poorer people the role of
the husband was to work in the fields or as a corvee. The wife was expected to rear children
as well as assists in the fields and carry out menial duties in the house. They lived in
agricultural communities in small mud-brick houses. The days of manual labour were only
broken by religious festivals. Poorer people had small burials where the mummy was
wrapped in linen and buried in the desert with a few funerary goods.
 Workers at DEM had better living standards. They were paid by the pharaoh for work on
royal tomb. Additional to this, they also did work using their skills on the side and thus were
considerably wealthy. Some workers owned livestock, slaves and land, and the women were
able to afford jewellery. They could not however, still afford full mummification.
 Officials were the wealthiest non-royals, and had a better standard of living, busy career and
a wider diet. They had servants that the wife supervised, but for all the luxury they still had a
short life expectancy. Women had a shortened life expectancy due to the risks associated
with child birth.
 Doctors in New Kingdom Egypt were a mix of medicine and magic. Examinations of
mummies have shown that there was a large incidence of parasitic disease, degenerative
disease of the joints.
 The importance of family was stressed in New Kingdom life such as in the Instruction of Ani,
as well as in tomb reliefs. Children were considered as a blessing, especially a boy. Infant
mortality was high especially in the 1st moth, 3 years and four years 4 (when breast feeding
finished.)
 The children are depicted as playing, as well as participating in everyday life. The boys of
DEM would carry water pots and as they grew up would learn the trade of their father or
uncle.
 Wealthy had servants and thus more time for leisure. Fishing and fowling were common
leisure activities; Ramesses II is depicted hunting bulls at his temple at Medinet Habu.
Banquets are often represented with dancers and servants attending the wealthy on highbacked chairs.
 Other leisure actives included board games in particular Senet. 10-20% of people had
arteriosclerosis which was due to too many animal fats, wine and stress. Average life
expectancy was around 30 but it is said that Ramesses II lived into his 90’s.
 Food and clothing
 Food and drink for the poor was a stable diet of bread, beer and onion, supplemented with
fruit whenever possible. Bread was important for all households, and was made from
emmer wheat ground using a low stone saffle quern, with a central depression to make
flour. Commercial bakeries were present in the new kingdom. Honey, sweet fruit sesame
etc. was added to bread. Beer was made from fermented barley of wheat, with dates and
was a thick nutritious liquid. Fish were caught in the Nile to supplement poorer diets.
 The wealthier, through their estates could have fowl, wine and meat. Fruit and veg in Egypt
were mainly: figs, dates, pomegranates, grapes. Garlic, lettuce, radishe, hcoty, cucumbers,
beans and melons. Oil was extracted from olives, flax etc. Cattle sheep, goat, pigs etc. were
kept and bred. Food and drink were also offered to the dead
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Clothing: poorer men wore loin cloths/ short kilts. Officials and priests wore fine linen cloths.
Priest wore white but safflower, madder and acacia was used to colour linen. Officials wore
elaborate pleated kilts, with apron projections at the front. Belts worn by men only. Officials
often marked their status through the style of dress. Viziers depicted wearing long robes and
sem-preist is shown wearing leopard skin. Sandals of leather and papyrus worn by the elites
as well as those who had to travel long distances such as messengers. Wigs were worn by
men at public functions and banquets. Costumes of Pharaoh’s became more elaborate, they
wore an extended kilt with sunray pleating. It was topped by a pendant belt with blue and
red streamers, with a stiff gold and blue bull’s tail.
 Ramesside women as depicted in tombs wore longer and elaborate garments that their pre
armana counterparts. Either wore a long cloak, or a wraparound dress under the pleated
mantle, both reaching to the floor. Also wore jewellery, headbands, lotus flower etc. women
also intricately made wigs, and wore sandals such as that which was found in the tomb of
queen Nefatari. Kohl, was used by both men and women, which was dropped into the eye to
make it look bigger and give it a black outline and protect the eye from the sun.
 Housing and Furniture
 Houses mad out of mud brick. Most people lived in villages, in these houses waste disposal
was a problem. Living conditions at house in Deir el Medina were much better. Houses in
Dem were about 5 x 15 metres. The fist room was the welcoming room, the next was the
largest, and then to the side was the bedroom. The kitchen was the last room with an
upstairs and an underground cellar.
 Wealthy people lived in villas surrounded by outer walls. The house was grand with a
pillared veranda, white to reflect the heat. House was built around a square hall, which the
roof was elevated to let light and air through the windows. Bedrooms were at the back of
the house and there was a staircase leading to the roof.
 Furniture was sparse in poorer houses bench or table used for food, and chest/ wall niches
used to store things. Wealthier people had bed frames. Chairs tables etc. usually made from
imported wood such as cedar, ebony and timber. Lamps were also present.
 Occupations
 Majority of people were poor agricultural workers who worked on the estate of the pharaoh
and temples. Specialised herders and shapards looked after a particular animal. Poor people
could also be employed as gate keepers, servants or gardeners. Most skilled workers worked
at Deir el Medina on the royal tombs. Most of them worked in temples or palaces, but also
could work for high officials. That who could afford an education in the Ramesside period
could become a scribe or craftsmen but is was usually passed down from father to son. Army
was another may of rising to high positions in the Ramesside period. The role of women was
mainly at home but they could serve as singers, dancers or musicians.