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Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith Múntavut ‘The free speech’ A Concise Description 1. The Sounds of Múntavut Múntavut is relatively unproblematic to pronounce for English speakers, since most of the sounds of the language are familiar. There are sixteen distinct consonant sounds, and six basic vowels. All sounds are pronounced approximately as in English, except where indicated. Consonants represented by one letter in the Latin transliteration: b d f g k l m n – may be doubled, when written ‘nn’, pronounced as in Italian p r – rolled, as in Spanish s – always unvoiced: like the first ‘s’ in ‘says’, but not the second t v z – mostly at the beginning of words Consonants represented by two letters in the Latin transliteration: sh – as in English ch – as in German after a/o/u, or the Scottish ‘loch’ Note that some consonant combinations have restricted distributions, e.g., ‘sp’ cannot occur at the beginning of a word. There are fewer combinations possible than in English. 1 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith Vowels a – as in ‘cat’ i – as in ‘bit’ e – as in ‘pet’ o – rather like in the German ‘Obst’ u – as in ‘put’ ā – neutral ‘schwa’, like both the ‘u’ and the ‘e’ in ‘butter’ Dipthongs Most combinations occur; they are generally pronounced quite sharply, without slurring. 2. Words of Múntavut Words and phrases are generally made in Múntavut by combining root words with grammatical particles as suffixes; modifiers of all kinds attach to the end of words in a defined order. The default stress position in Múntavut words is on the penultimate syllable; exceptions are always indicated by an acute accent in the Latin transliteration. Where two vowels occur together, and one of them carries the stress, the stress is also indicated on the appropriate vowel for clarity, even if this represents the penultimate syllable. Personal pronouns Subject pronouns (he, she, etc) do not stand alone in Múntavut as they do in English; they are attached to the verb they govern. The following table gives a list of the forms of personal pronouns in three of the four cases used in Múntavut, which will be familiar to those who have studied European languages such as German, or even Old English: Nominative (subject case – I, we, etc); Accusative (direct object case – us, them etc); Dative (indirect object case – (to) me, (to) us, etc). Form I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she it we Nominative shi me Accusative shu mu Dative shuke muke inde inne nor nen (in)du (in)nu nur nun (in)duke (in)nuke nurke nunke 2 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith you (formal; men singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) inden they (fem. or mixed) innen mun munke (in)dun (in)nun (in)dunke (in)nunke These forms add directly to the verb; where more than one form is required, they add in the above order: nominative, then accusative, then dative. The accusative and dative particles are separated from the root word by a hyphen in the Latin transliteration, for clarity. These particles are also not included in the stress pattern of the word, whereas the nominative pronoun is, where present. Examples of simple verb phrases to illustrate use of the personal pronouns: Shenishi-nu – ‘I love her.’ Apinen-nur-dunke – ‘We give it to them.’ The nominative particle can sometimes be dropped when the context is clear. The in syllable in the third-person accusative forms (in brackets in the table) is only used where the nominative particle has been dropped. Both the nominative and accusative particles must be attached to the verb if used. Tarinde-du-munke or Tar-indu-munke – ‘He sends him to you.’ The in syllable in the third-person dative forms (in brackets in the table) is only used in the verb-phrase construction where the nominative particle has been dropped and there is no accusative particle present. However, it is important to note that the dative particles may be detached from the verb, and placed elsewhere in the sentence for emphasis. In such cases the full form, including the in syllable where applicable, must be used: Vudijinne-nur-duke or Induke vudijinne-nur – ‘She told (it to) him,’ or ‘She told (it to) him.’ Nouns Nouns carry no gender in Múntavut. Nevertheless, the forms of nouns depend on how they are being used in the sentence – in other words, which case governs their use. Here a fourth case comes into play: the genitive, the case governing possession. We use felas, star, as the exemplar, because it is regular. Some words follow slightly different patterns; their discussion must await a full-length publication. The root form of any word is taken to be its indefinite, singular nominative form. 3 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith (1) Nominative Single Plural Indefinite felas felasi Definite felasut felasuti (2) Accusative: endings -u/-inua Indefinite Definite Single felasu felasutu Plural felasinu felasútinu a If the noun ends in a vowel, these endings become -ne/-nine in the indefinite. (3) Dative: endings -ke/-ike Indefinite Single felaske Plural felasike b Note disappearance of t before -ke ending. Definite felasukeb felasútike (4) Genitive: endings -o/-onec Indefinite Definite Single felaso felasuto Plural felasone felasútone c If the noun ends in a vowel, these endings become -no/-none in the indefinite. Note the shift of stress to the ut syllable in plural forms with the definite article; this is usual. Otherwise in general the stress shifts to the penultimate syllable in inflected forms, e.g. felas, but felaso Proper nouns Proper nouns are often used with the definite article in Múntavut, particularly when not used nominatively. In all cases they must be inflected as other nouns: Fenishi Zirenasutu – I see Zirenas. Note on the use of the genitive In expressions such as ‘the woman’s house’, the word order is different in Múntavut to that in English: the expression becomes ‘the house of the woman’. The definite article is then used with both words: ruchut malinuto. Where the whole noun phrase is 4 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith not in the nominative, for example: ‘we saw the woman’s house’ (accusative), only the object itself is modified; the genitive part of the phrase remains the same: Fenijinen ruchutu malinuto. Adjectives Adjectives are uninflected, except in comparison, but must always follow the noun they modify. New nouns are formed freely in Múntavut by the combination of noun and adjective, often by figurative extension, e.g., zirenas – ‘precious smile’ = ‘full moon’. The comparative forms of adjectives are formed by the addition of –(i)fe. The superlative form substitutes the ending –(i)fet: ast – ‘precious’ ástife – ‘more precious’ ástifet – ‘most precious’ Adverbs Adverbs are usually formed from the adjectives by the addition of –(n)ā. They may be placed anywhere in the clause with the verb they modify. The comparative forms of adverbs are formed by the addition of –fe; the superlative form substitutes the ending –fet: zos – quick zosā – quickly zósafe – quicker (= more quickly) zósafet – quickest (= most quickly) Note also from these examples that adjectives and adverbs tend to keep the stressed syllable of the root word when inflected as comparatives/superlatives. Possessive adjectives Possessive adjectives are indicated by adding the appropriate personal pronoun particle (see above) to the noun. Note that no noun can carry both a possessive adjective and the definite article, since one replaces the other in function. This is as in English, but unlike Catalan, for instance. Examples: Bichonil-shi – ‘My problem’ (nom.). (Shenifinde) shilasu-indu – ‘(He loved) his daughter (acc.).’ The possessive adjectives in the genitive case have the following forms: 5 Múntavut – A Concise Description Form I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she it we you (formal; singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) they (fem. or mixed) Richard F Smith Genitive sho mo indo inno no non mon onde onne For example: (Salijinde) torgutu shilas-indo – ‘(He found) his daughter’s book’ (= ‘(He found) the book of his daughter). The same particles are used as stand-alone words for possessive pronouns: (Torgut nefor) sho – ‘(The book was) mine.’ Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives Le has approximately the same meaning as ‘this’ in English; lo corresponds to ‘that’: Le nor veran-shi – ‘This is my story.’ Lo nejor kran – ‘That was bad.’ The demonstrative adjectives are formed using these two words as particles, uninflected, at the end of the noun (including case endings) they modify; no definite article is required: (Apijinne-shuke) nidosu-le – ‘(She gave me) this ring.’ Where another adjective is also included, the second, non-demonstrative adjective follows the noun phrase: (Apijinne-shuke) nidosu-le faren – ‘(She gave me) this silvery ring.’ Indefinite adjectives/pronouns The indefinite adjectives include ‘any’, ‘no’ and ‘some’ in English. The related pronouns include ‘anything’, ‘nothing’, ‘none’, ‘someone,’ etc. The indefinite 6 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith adjectives behave exactly like other adjectives grammatically – they are uninflected and are attached at the end of the word they modify: Shannen lenvu-ze – ‘We have no time.’ The pronouns inflect according to the case they are governed by, as with other nouns: Shannen zenu – ‘We have none.’ Shanfinne lenvu maltonke – ‘She had time for everyone.’ Verbs In the following tables we use the regular verb elesá (to return, to come back (intrans.)) as our model. The verb stem is ele-, and this basic element remains constant throughout. If there is a specified subject, this stem (plus tense particle, see below) is used alone uninflected. For example: Zirenas (or Zirenasut) rutino – ‘Zirenas frowns.’ Where there is no specified subject, the verb stem takes one of the personal pronouns introduced above, which depend on the person (first, second, or third), gender and number of the subject. Note that some verbs have a penultimate syllable in the vowel i; in these cases, the i is dropped in the stem before the verb is conjugated with pronoun endings with a first letter i, eg. apisá, to give: apime, apinde, etc. Ease of pronunciation is a guide. Present tense Form Verb alone Combined with personal pronoun eleshi eleme I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she it ele we you (formal; singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) they (fem. or mixed) eleínde eleínne elennor* elennen* elemen eleínden eleínnen * Note doubling of n, which is pronounced as two separate consonants, as in inne (she): in + ne. 7 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith Future tense The future tense is indicated by addition of the syllable or to the stem, or insertion of this particle between the stem and the pronoun endings. This syllable may be stressed, and is always so when no pronoun is present. Form Verb alone Combined with personal pronoun eleórshi eleórme I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she eleór it we you (formal; singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) they (fem. or mixed) eleorinde eleorinne eleornor eleórnen eleórmen eleorinden eleorinnen Maladinuti eleór – ‘The men will return.’ Foriut eleór – ‘Foriu will return.’ Past Imperfect – used for habitual actions in the past The past imperfect tense is indicated by addition of the syllable f(i) to the stem, or insertion of this particle between the stem and the pronoun endings. This particle is usually stressed in the resulting word, except in some irregular verbs. Form Verb alone Combined with personal pronoun elefishi elefime I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she elefi it we you (formal; singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) they (fem. or mixed) elefinde elefinne elefinor elefinen elefimen elefinden elefinnen 8 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith Preterite – used to indicate a single completed event or action in the past The preterite is indicated by addition of the syllable j(i) to the stem, or insertion of this particle between the stem and the pronoun endings. This particle is usually stressed in the resulting word, except in some irregular verbs. Form Verb alone Combined with personal pronoun elejishi elejime I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she eleji it we you (formal; singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) they (fem. or mixed) elejinde elejinne elejinor elejinen elejimen elejinden elejinnen Note: there are no past perfect or pluperfect tenses. These senses are indicated using the past preterite together with time phrases as necessary for clarity. The same applies to the future perfect and conditional perfect. Conditional tense This tense is formed from the stem of the verb combined with the syllable um or un^, plus pronoun endings if appropriate. The ending is always stressed in stand-alone verbs (no pronoun). Form Verb alone Combined with personal pronoun eleúmshi eleúme* I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she eleúm it we you (formal; singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) they (fem. or mixed) eleuminde eleuminne eleúnnor^ eleúnnen^ eleúmmen eleuminden eleuminnen ^un is used in the third person neutral singular and first person plural to avoid the disallowed consonant combination mn. * Note that the m is not doubled here. 9 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith Imperative The singular informal form is simply the stem of the verb, with the exception of the irregular verbs. The ‘we’ form (‘let’s’) is the infinitive minus –á, plus the ending –en, stressed; the plural/formal ‘you’ form is the verb stem plus –s: Form you (sing. informal) we you (formal; singular and plural) Verb ele elesén eles Continuous verb forms Continuous verb forms, such as ‘we are running’ and ‘we were saying,’ are not found in Múntavut. In the present and future tenses the simple present and future tenses are used, respectively, distinguished by the context. In the past tense the past imperfect tense should be used. Passive voice There are no specific passive forms in Múntavut. Instead an impersonal pronoun fas is used, rather akin to the French ‘on’ or the German ‘man’, although they are both used rather differently: Fas tarij-indu – ‘He was sent’ (Meaning literally ‘one sent him.’) Fas por-nur – ‘It will be done.’ (Meaning literally ‘one will do it.’) Participles There are no distinct participle verb forms in Múntavut: there are no compound tenses (hence no past partciples), and present participle forms in English are either rendered using the infinitive form of the verb, or by periphrasis, for example: Fenijishi-du hachisá – ‘I saw him laugh/laughing’ Felin veriná-shu ven fenishi-nu – ‘Try to stop my seeing her’ (= ‘Try to stop me that I see her’).1 Note that in the latter case the infinitive cannot be used, viz. Felin veriná-shu fenisá-nu as it would lead to potential ambiguity: ‘Try to see her stop(ping) me’ is another potential interpretation of the sentence if two infinitives were to be used, because word order is flexible (see later). 1 For use of the relative pronoun ven see p.11. 10 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith ‘To be’ The verb ‘to be’, nuná, is irregular: Form Present Future Preterite Conditional norshi norme Past imperfect nifi nefim I you (familiar; singular and plural) he she it we you (formal; singular and plural) they (masc. or neut.) they (fem. or mixed) ni nem niji nejim nui num ne ne nor nemen nen ninde ninne nornor nornen normen nef nef nefor nefen nefem nej nej nejor nejen nejem nume nume numor numen numem nen ninden nefi neji numin nen ninnen nefi neji numin Where there might be ambiguity the personal pronouns may be used in addition to these forms, usually directly before or after the verb. Several other common verbs follow a similar pattern: fená (‘to come’, root f-); jená (‘to go’, root j-) and sivá, ‘to be able to’/‘can’, root s-): Fume – ‘He/she would come.’ Jejor – ‘It went.’ Sinnen – ‘They will be able to.’ Prepositions Prepositions govern specific cases in Múntavut, as in German and Russian, which must be learned. However, the preposition in Múntavut always follows the noun or noun phrase it refers to: (Panveuti maz) marodalútone re – ‘(The birds sleep) in the marodal trees’ (genitive). Relative pronouns The relative pronouns ‘that’ and ‘which’ are rendered by the single, invariant word ven in Múntavut2. The relative pronoun ‘who/whom/whose’, as in English, depends on the case it is governed by in its relative clause: 2 However, see section on subjunctive later. 11 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith Who (nominative): bin Whom (accusative): bun Whom (dative): buke Whose (genitive): buno These pronouns tend to come at the beginning of the relative clause (though there is flexibility; see section on word order later). Nevertheless, buno must belong to a noun, and therefore always follows the noun it refers to: Fenijishi maladinutu, shilas buno dunijinne pazan - I saw the man, whose daughter died yesterday. Numbers Cardinal numbers can stand alone as subject or object of a sentence. They can also be used as adjectives, and then should follow the noun in the usual way. pem rep ach shon zin rul kish nam kut lat la-pem la-rep lat-ach la-shon la-zin la-rul la-kish la-nam la-kut rep-lat rep-lat-em rep-lat-ep rep-lat-ach rep-lat-shon rep-lat-zin rep-lat-ul rep-lat-kish rep-lat-nam rep-lat-kut ach-lat Ordinal numbers one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty twenty-one twenty-two twenty-three twenty-four twenty-five twenty-six twenty-seven twenty-eight twenty-nine thirty 12 Múntavut – A Concise Description shon-lat zin-lat rul-at kish-lat nam-lat ku-lat lator lator-lem lator-ep veum Richard F Smith forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety hundred hundred (and) one hundred (and) two thousand Note that there are some irregularities in the spellings in some cases, which are sometimes to avoid disallowed consonant combinations, e.g., la-rep (‘thirteen’), not lat-rep, and sometimes to prevent doubling of consonants, e.g. rul-at (‘sixty’), not rullat. The ordinal numbers are formed by adding –n(a) to the cardinal numbers. The ordinal numbers can be used as adjectives or adverbs, as appropriate. Examples of the numbers in use: Finden zin or zin finden – ‘Five (men) will come.’ Duniji maladini nam-lat-ep – ‘Eighty-two men died.’ Malinut achna – ‘The third woman’ (nominative). Fej zinna bigoluto kelu – ‘He came fifth in (= time sense, or ‘during’ here) the race’ (genitive). 3. Brief notes on the structure of Múntavut Word order Word order is rather more flexible within a verb phrase in Múntavut than in English, because the function of words is usually readily apparent from their form (c.f. Latin). An acceptable alternative to the expression Fenijishi maladinutu, shilas buno dunijinne pazan could be, for example: Maladinutu fenijishi, dunijinne shilas buno pazan, particularly if the verb, dunijinne, is being emphasised. As noted earlier, buno must always follow shilas directly here, as with all adjectives. Connecting words and phrases, such as ven, introduced earlier, do not impose any particular word order in the succeeding phrase, as in English and German, for example. The same may be said for question words, whether used directly: 13 Múntavut – A Concise Description Richard F Smith Ba nor lo? or Ba lo nor? – ‘What is that?’ or indirectly: Susishi sun Foriu nej? or Susishi sun nej Foriu? – ‘I wonder where Foriu was?’ Subjunctive mood The subjunctive mood describes situations where facts or events are reported as uncertain, introduced by phrases such as ‘I think/believe,’ ‘I’ve heard …’ or ‘It’s possible …’. Some languages have distinct verb forms to indicate the subjunctive mood, but in Múntavut this uncertainty is indicated by a single particle, go, which may be added either to the relative pronoun ven or to the verb in the subjunctive clause: Ferinden ven-go stinajinne, or Ferinden ven stinajinne-go – ‘They (the men) say (that) she killed herself.’ Modal verbs Modal verbs are ‘to be able to/can’, ‘to want to’, ‘to have to/must’ etc. They govern the infinitive forms of their subsidiary verbs in Múntavut, as in English: Teshi jená – I must go. Negatives The usual way of indicating a negative in a sentence is to add the particle zeu to the verb phrase, after the other endings: Fenorme-shi zeu lenvu-ze – ‘You won’t see me any more’ (literally ‘never’). This example illustrates that there are no equivalents in Múntavut to the English ‘any’ phrases. Instead a negative adjective or pronoun is used, as applicable. For example ‘I don’t have any’ must be translated ‘I have none;’ ‘I don’t see anyone’ must become ‘I see no one’, etc. It also shows that double negatives are not a problem in Múntavut, since the sentence literally means ‘You will not never see me.’ [Richard F Smith, dated January 2007- May 2010] 14