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CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion CHAPTER OVERVIEW Motivation is behind all purchases, whether the buyer is a consumer or an organisation. Marketers need to be aware of both the conscious and unconscious drivers behind consumer behaviour. Motivational research will help marketers segment their markets and prepare marketing campaigns to better suit consumer needs. Hull, Maslow, McGuire and McClelland each address theories that are relevant to the marketing discipline and consumer behaviour. Motives can be conscious or unconscious in nature, extrinsic or intrinsic, or functional or expressive. Conflict can occur when different motives are acting on a consumer, but marketers can use strategies to help overcome these situations. Emotion can also appeal to consumer’s motives. Research has revealed that men and women react differently to emotional appeals by marketers. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: Describe the nature of consumer motivation and the different types of buying motives Discuss how the major theories of motivation relate to consumer behaviour Outline the influence of motivational conflict on the purchase decision process Discuss the difference between rational and emotional motives Describe the tactics used in motivational research Discuss the nature of emotion and its influence over marketing strategy development. CHAPTER TOPICS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What is motivation? The nature of motivation Major theories of motivation Drive and primary and secondary motives McClelland’s secondary needs theory Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory McGuire’s psychological motivation theory Motivational roles Motivation and organisational buying Situational needs Functional needs Social needs Knowledge needs Fear appeals Motivational conflict Avoidance–Avoidance conflict Approach–Avoidance conflict Approach–Approach conflict Social marketing and motivation Motivational research Case in point 8.1—Motivational research IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 74 Case in point 8.2—Emotive pitch is key to women 10. Emotion LECTURE OUTLINE Encourage discussion to introduce subject: Consumers don’t just buy a product or service for the sake of it. And often our reasons for purchase go beyond the functional benefits of that product. Ask students what brand of watch they are wearing. Why do people buy a Rolex watch, if their prime reason or motivation is to tell the time? Different groups of people are motivated by different reasons. Most people buy a watch for an accurate picture of the time. But some want special functions (like a stopwatch); others want a fashion accessory they can change with their outfits, whilst others need a large face so it’s easy to see the time. As marketers, we are interested in knowing what motivates buyers so we can satisfy their needs. We don’t create consumer needs, we appeal to existing needs. This chapter will consider the nature of motivation and various motivation theories that help us to understand buyers better. In this context, we refer to both consumers and organisational buyers. 1. What is motivation? Motivation describes the ‘internal drives of an individual which arouse, maintain and direct human behaviour towards a goal’ (text, p. 222). Motives drive behaviour and different people are motivated by different goals. Figure 8.1 (text, p. 222) illustrates how individuals are motivated towards achieving goals. Refer to the interactive exercises for discussion ideas. 2. The nature of motivation Motivation is closely linked to personality and learning. Self-concept is also reflected in our motivation behind a purchase. Motivation can be quite complex to research, because sometimes consumers don’t know the reasons behind a purchase, or are unwilling to verbalise their true motivations. This can also be addressed when looking at conscious versus unconscious motives. Challenge students to think of the real reasons for visiting that nightclub on a regular basis. Surely it isn’t so you can pay more for drinks? Purchases may be made for functional (rational) or expressive (emotive) reasons. Functional criteria are based on the actual attributes or features of a product or service. We tend to think of businesses as assessing their purchases in this way, although human beings are still the ones making the decisions. The expressive reason for buying includes the emotive reasons like a prestige brand and peer approval. In this case, the product is evaluated based on the product and its fit with the consumer’s ideal ‘self-concept’. Motivation can be positive or negative in direction. We may feel a driving force toward some object or condition (like being fit or looking good), or a driving force away from some object or condition (avoiding fatty foods or ill-fitting clothing for our age). Motives and goals are constantly changing. We are rarely completely satisfied. New needs emerge as old needs are satisfied. Researchers have concluded that individuals who successfully achieve their goals usually set new and higher goals for themselves. Consumer behaviour and the intensity of drives are influenced by expectations of success or failure in reaching certain goals. When a consumer may not be able to achieve a goal they expect will satisfy their needs (or motivations), their behaviour may be directed to an alternative or substitute goal. For example, a person may not be able to afford Redken products for their hair on a regular basis, but some marketers have put out close substitutes to meet the consumer’s needs. IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 75 3. Motivation can be intrinsic (internally driven) or extrinsic (externally driven). For example, hunger is an involuntary physiological drive from within our own bodies. However, an advertisement whilst driving or the passing of the golden arches may be an extrinsic cue to eat McDonald’s. Major theories of motivation There are many different theories that try to explain motivation. Drive and primary and secondary motives In the 1940s Hull considered that our primary drives (or homeostatic needs) were biological needs like hunger, safety and thirst. Later this theory was modified to also include secondary drives, which also cause tension and anxiety. These secondary drives are typically learned. When anxiety is reduced, an individual’s drive is then reduced or diminished. This is why it is called ‘drive reduction’ theory. One major assumption behind this theory is that once a drive is satisfied, the tension is reduced. This conflicts with our earlier discussions on how our drives or motives are constantly changing, and can become more intense at a different level once the primary goals are achieved. McClelland’s secondary needs theory McClelland developed a theory based on a trio of needs. The key to this theory is that these needs are learned, based on rewards and punishment (and closely linked to operant conditioning, covered in Chapter 6.) These needs are as follows: 1. The need for achievement considers that people with a high need for achievement tend to be selfconfident, risk-averse and similar to those self-made millionaires raised in the previous chapter in Case in point 7.3. 2. The need for affiliation suggests that behaviour is highly influenced by the desire for friendship, acceptance and belonging. 3. The need for power relates to an individual’s desire to control others. Many individuals experience increased self-esteem when they employ power over objects or other people. Consider the Interactive Class Exercise below for examples. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Abraham Maslow developed a widely-accepted theory of motivation based on a ‘hierarchy of needs’. His theory suggests that individuals seek to satisfy lower-level needs before higher-level needs emerge. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes five categories of needs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Physiological needs—these needs are the individual’s basic physical needs, including food, water, shelter, clothing, rest and sex. Safety needs—these needs are concerned with physical and psychological safety. Physical safety includes protection from danger and ill-health. Psychological needs address order, stability, routine, familiarity, security and assurance in the future. Social needs—include needs of acceptance, love, affection and belonging. Esteem needs—take either an inward or outward point of reference, or both. Inwardly-directed needs reflect an individual’s need for self-acceptance, self-esteem, success, independence and personal satisfaction. Outward-directed needs include the need for recognition by others, prestige, a fine reputation or status. Self-actualisation needs—these needs are never really satisfied. Self actualisation refers to the desire to be our very best and fulfil our potential. Maslow believed that once one set of needs was satisfied, people would be motivated by higher order needs. In fact, people can be motivated by more than one level of needs at a time, with the importance of each level dependent on the individual’s particular situation. This makes sense, since we can’t always go IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 76 back to the beginning of the hierarchy because we are hungry, and then make our way up through every level of the hierarchy to seek approval from others once we have eaten! The importance individuals place on certain needs may change over time. For example, if a person loses their house in a bushfire, they will be more interested in finding accommodation than job satisfaction. Interestingly, in more advanced countries like Australia, most people’s lower-order needs are satisfied, so advertising tends to focus more on higher-order needs of belongingness, esteem and image. Refer to both the Interactive and Discussion Exercises below to encourage student participation. McGuire’s psychological motivation theory McGuire’s theory of motivation suggests that individuals have separate internal and external motives. External motives are based on social influences and internal motives are based on aspects of the consumer’s sense of self. This relates very closely to consumer behaviour, since typically influences are divided into two categories—(1) internal (Chapters 5–9) and (2) external (Chapters 10–12). Table 8.1 summarises the major aspects of McGuire’s theory. Internal motive or need Need for consistency Description Internal equilibrium or balance Need for (attribute) causation Determine the causes of what happens to us Need to categorise Organise information and experiences in a meaningful way Need for cues Observable signs that allow us to know what is happening Need for independence Driven by a need for self-worth Need for novelty People seek variety and difference Description Express one’s identity to others To defend our own identity External motive Need for social expression Need for ego-defence Need for assertion Need for reinforcement Need for affiliation Need for modelling Engage in those activities that increase our self-worth and esteem in front of others Act in a certain way because we are rewarded for doing so Develop mutually satisfying relationships and be accepted by others Our desire to be like others or be a model role for others Example An elite product is higher priced and available at exclusive stores Our friend recommending a certain product is likely to be believed more than a salesperson’s efforts Price points such as fragrance over $100 and fragrance under $100 The tick from the Heart Foundation lets us know the product is good for us Companies like Nike ‘Just do it’ appeal to this need The many flavours available in MasterFoods’ marinades Example Purchase of status symbols Purchase the right brand of drink at a night club so we appear cool Slogans such as ‘be what you want to be’ appeal to these needs Samples and prizes by marketers encourage consumers to buy promoted brands ‘You ought to be congratulated’— Meadow Lea Use of celebrities in ads Refer to Exercises below for reinforcement. IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 77 4. Motivational roles Consumer reasons for purchase can be categorised into ‘functionally oriented’ or ‘self-expressive’. Functional needs are practical needs based on the utility offered by the product. Self-expressive needs are based on self-concept and concern for social image. Functional benefits are taken for granted by people who buy products for expressive reasons. Certain product categories focus more on expressive needs than functional needs. Surf clothing brands like Rip Curl and Billabong focus more on self-image. Yet Big W and Best & Less consider the more functional use of their products. All brands offer similar utility or function, but consumers are happy to pay the price for what they consider ‘style’ or ‘fashion’. 5. Motivation and organisational buying Organisations are considered ‘rational’ in their purchasing decisions. However, a range of factors influence level of satisfaction and motivation for organisations. Figure 8.3 (text, p. 232) illustrates the components of organisational needs. The ‘must-haves’ relate to those factors that the customer sees as essential to a transaction. These factors are based on quality and reliability. All suppliers in their evoked set meet these criteria. The ‘delighters’ are the characteristics that enhance the buyer’s satisfaction. The more satisfied a customer, the more chance of a repeat purchase. These are the attributes sellers must focus on when developing strategies for organisational buyers. There are several categories of buyer needs in business markets: Situational needs Needs unique to the particular buying situation, such as an urgent order or short-term storage space. Functional needs Functions, benefits and attributes required for a purchase. The essential buying criteria and minimum requirements that must be met. Social needs Interrelationships between seller and buyer are important here. As are the factors that might affect the buyer or organisation’s standing in the environment. Knowledge needs This involves training and development support offered by the seller. Table 8.2 (text, p. 233) provides an example of assessing a business buyer’s needs. Refer to the Interactive Exercise below to assess student understanding. 6. Fear appeals Fear can be an effective (and not so effective) tool for advertisers to consider. A ‘fear’ appeal is more effective when there is a large chance of serious consequences actually happening if behaviour doesn’t change or a particular purchase is not made. Fear doesn’t have to relate to physical harm, but in most cases it will. 7. Motivational conflict Consumers have many motives that drive their behaviour. So what happens when conflicting motives are working to satisfy their needs—with different outcomes? For example, what happens when a consumer is IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 78 hungry, they want something quick and not so healthy, but they know they shouldn’t have fatty or fried foods? This conflict is called motivational conflict and causes us to take action to reduce this conflict. There are three types of motivational conflict: Avoidance–Avoidance conflict This type of conflict occurs when the consumer faces a choice between two undesirable situations. For example, private health insurance may seem like an unnecessary evil, when you’re not sure you’re actually going to need it. But there is always a risk that someone in the family will get ill and need some elective work done. Marketers need to show the positive side of joining a health fund, such as added bonuses, whether you’re sick or not. Approach–Avoidance conflict This conflict occurs when a consumer has a desire for a particular product, but they see some negative consequences of their behaviour. For example, a consumer may really want that new outfit for the party on the weekend, but can’t afford it. Alternatively, a consumer wants a quick snack, but this usually results in eating food with little nutritional value. Marketers need to offer special payment options to reduce the guilt of ‘buying and having now’. With the latest media coverage on childhood obesity and the need to be healthy, snack food companies are offering healthier alternatives for consumers. Approach–Approach conflict This conflict is based on opportunity cost. For example, if a consumer buys a famous brand of jeans, he may have to forgo the purchase of a new motorbike helmet, since both are not affordable. Again payment options might be considered to encourage the consumer to buy both (which questions a company’s ethical responsibility) or alternatively, special incentives or packages might be designed to help the customer make a speedy decision. Appliance retailers often use this tactic to encourage people to make a decision when in their store. 8. Social marketing and motivation Social marketing involves marketing messages in relation to social issues such as health and wellbeing. Research into the motivation for consumers adopting products that reflect salient social issues include: Problem removal Problem avoidance Self-approval Sensory gratification. Although fear appeals are often used, appeals based on self-esteem have been proven to be more successful. 9. Motivational research Motivational research can be used by marketers to get information about the unconscious or underlying purchase decision drivers, as well as how consumers perceive competing brands. Case in point 8.1—Motivational research Motivational research attempts to explain why consumers behave as they do. Often the research techniques aim to find out things about consumers that even the consumers themselves are not aware of. IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 79 Both high and low involvement products benefit from this type of research. How may of us know why we really get dressed in a certain order, or squeeze our toothpaste that way. Idiosyncrasies like using the same coloured pegs on a piece of clothing or spending more on adornment as we age, are all interesting findings that can help marketers appeal to consumer needs. The three major motivational research techniques include: Observation—in person or through video cameras, provides a partial picture of behaviour. Focus groups—to unravel some of the mysteries behind behaviour, the moderator must be skilled and able to encourage interaction from all participants. Depth interview—a lengthy one-on-one interview to ascertain underlying behaviour. Projective techniques to encourage scenario building or story telling are often a less threatening approach to discover underlying motives. To analyse the findings, a researcher looks for ‘systematic patterns of response’. Direct responses are compared against projected responses. Culture drives the analysis, since it is the underlying framework under which we all operate. In a marketing context, the business environment must also be understood. This includes competitive forces, brand images, relative market shares, the role of advertising in a certain category and trends in the marketplace. Case in point 8.2—Emotive pitch is key to women A key neurological difference between men and women is how our brain cells are structured and organised to control different behavioural functions. This finding is particularly relevant to advertising placement. If an ad is placed on the left-hand page, it will have a greater chance of being recalled by at least half of the men and women. However, if an ad is placed on the right-hand page, more than 65 per cent of women could recall it but few men! Another area of neurology that is intriguing is how men and women deal with emotion. Women have emotional responses in both sides of the brain, whilst men’s emotional functions are concentrated in the right side of the brain. In both men and women, our ability to verbalise rests on the left-hand side of the brain. This means a man’s emotions and his ability to verbalise are in opposite hemispheres. The implication for marketers is simple: the female is wired to seek emotions and relationships, while men are designed to communicate facts and data. Therefore a marketer aiming at men should use figures, facts and product features. Women should be targeted using more emotive techniques and visually appealing images. Can students think of examples where the marketer may have got it wrong? Facts and figures on power tools might work for men, but women want to know the final result and how it will feel! 10. Emotion Emotion is a powerful force in communication and learning. As Case in point 8.2 demonstrates, emotional appeals can have a bigger impact on women than men. Consider the types of products that use emotion as an appeal. What type of people are they targeting? What types of products or services are being advertised? Emotion can appeal to a consumer’s unconscious drives and stimulate them to action. Consider the exercises below. INTERACTIVE CLASS EXERCISES What is motivation? Ask students to consider the purchase of a piece of clothing. What would motivate them to buy one brand over another? The ideas you want to raise here will include physical needs (warmth), safety (prevent sunburn), affiliation (so peers won’t laugh at them), make a statement in regards to their status, purpose of clothing (party), etc. IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 80 The aim of the exercise is for students to consider just how complex motivational research can be, and the reasons behind segmenting the market to appeal to like-minded people. The nature of motivation Consider the main characteristics of motivation: Conscious versus unconscious motives. Purchases may be made for functional (rational) or expressive (emotive) reasons. Motivation can be positive or negative in direction. Motives and goals are constantly changing. Consumer behaviour and intensity of drive are influenced by expectations of success or failure in reaching certain goals. Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Break students into groups. Consider the nature of motivation using the above points for the following products: Sunglasses Great Barrier Reef holiday Mobile phone/camera IPod Toyota Landcruiser Bottle of wine. Students may want to use the following table to stimulate their discussion. Product _____________________________ Characteristic of motivation Application to product These needs could be conscious motives: These needs could be unconscious motives: Functional reasons for purchase: Expressive reasons for purchase: Positive direction of motive Negative direction of motive (both may not be applicable) How might motives change? How might actions or intensity of drive be influenced by expectations of success or failure? continued IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 81 Intrinsic motivators: Extrinsic motivators: Drive and primary and secondary motives Encourage examples from students to reflect products that meet: Primary needs Secondary needs. You may find that a particular brand meets both types of needs. Can students think of times when a need is met and further stimulated by the satisfaction of that need? McClelland’s secondary needs theory Consider the trio of needs and examples of products that target each: The need for achievement—targets high achievers The need for affiliation—targets followers or those that don’t like rocking the boat. Age could come into this level of need too The need for power—opinion leaders. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Break students into groups. Ask each group to discuss how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs could be used to develop a marketing strategy for one of the following products or services: a) Salvation Army b) community church c) DVD player d) plasma screen TV e) chips f) security system. McGuire’s psychological motivation theory Consider McGuire’s internal and external needs. Which needs are being appealed to by the following brands? a) Salvation Army b) community church c) Sony DVD recorder d) Panasonic plasma screen TV e) Kettle chips f) home to base security system. Motivational roles Ask students to describe a person who would seek to satisfy self-expressive needs. Now consider examples of product categories where functional and expressive needs are being met by different brands. For example appliances, stereos, cars. Motivation and organisational buying Break students into groups. Ask them to determine the different motivations behind the following organisations’ purchases. Table 8.2 (text, p. 233) provides an example of assessing a business buyer’s needs: a) A photocopier b) Courier services c) Long-term contract for stationery d) Raw materials (flour or bakery) e) Plastic bag packaging for bakery IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 82 Fear appeals Consider examples of advertisers that motivate consumers to action through fear appeals. The fear of physical harm like drugs, drink driving, pap smears will be raised. Also consider fear of social disapproval in your discussions. Motivational conflict Break students into groups. Describe how the three types of motivational conflict could arise when purchasing the following: a) Petrol for the car b) Overseas holiday c) New tyres d) Hot chips e) Wedding present f) Fresh versus dried herbs. More than one type of conflict could be applicable to some of these product categories. Social marketing and motivation Ask students to consider examples of companies that market social issues for attitude or behaviour change to meet the following motivations: Problem removal—e.g. get better from sickness, provide home or food for homeless person Problem avoidance—e.g. reduce the risk of certain cancers Self-approval—e.g. esteem for those that donate, or give up smoking Sensory gratification—e.g. as soon as you stop smoking you will have renewed energy; as soon as you have the test and find out everything is okay, you’ll feel great. Motivational research Encourage students to think of the underlying (or unconscious) motives behind buying some of the following products: Jeans Coffee in a coffee shop Restaurant for a family night out Memorabilia for a favourite sporting team Interstate or overseas holiday. Emotion List all the emotions you can think of as a class. Consider the following: pleasure, duty, faith, gratitude, joy, desire, affection, innocence, interest, distraction, contempt, conflict, guilt, sadness, happiness, fear, shame, disgust. Ask students how they could target men and women differently for a range of products and services such as petrol, cars and car accessories (tyres), fertiliser for the garden, take-away food. DISCUSSION EXERCISES 1. Explain McClelland’s needs for achievement, affiliation and power. Find advertisements that appeal to each of these different needs. Achievement needs refer to those individuals who regard personal achievements as a motivation goal. These types of individuals are good prospects for image products and services like Armani and Rolex, do-it-yourself home improvement products and advertising appeals like ‘…now try the best’. Power needs relate to an individual’s desire to control others. Innovations targeting opinion leaders would fit this category, as do ads that stress speed, control (e.g. over finances) etc. Affiliation needs relate to the need for friendship, acceptance and belonging. Advertisements that portray friendly or family situations aim to meet the need for affiliation. IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 83 2. How could Maslow’s hierarchy of needs be used to segment a market or position the following brands? Justify your choices. a) RSPCA b) A football code (like NRL or AFL) c) Local nightclub d) Cadbury Old Gold chocolate e) Vitamins a) RSPCA—Safety and protection of neglected animals is most likely to appeal to the second level— safety. b) A football code (like NRL or AFL)—this could vary, but seems to relate most to social needs like belongingness and affiliation. Esteem needs could be addressed as we strive for satisfaction in leisure or try to be recognised by others in terms of knowing the game and following a team. Players could also be a target audience as they strive to be ‘simply the best’. In this case, self actualisation needs could be considered. c) Local nightclub—Social needs of belonging and love would be prominent. Although physiological needs can’t be ignored. d) Cadbury Old Gold chocolate—Although this is food, it is unlikely to meet physiological needs. This type of chocolate is a way of congratulating and indulging oneself. Any status associated with the use of the product though is directed internally. e) Vitamins—Vitamins look after our health, so these relate more to physiological or safety needs than any other category. 3. Using McGuire’s psychological motivation theory, which internal and external motives would be useful to consider when developing a promotional campaign for the products in question 2 above? Give reasons for your choices. a) RSPCA b) A football code (like NRL or AFL) c) Local nightclub d) Cadbury Old Gold chocolate e) Blackmores Vitamins a) RSPCA—need for causation to protect animals from harm; need for affiliation as we increase our self-worth in front of others; b) A football code (like NRL or AFL)—need to categorise (our football code is the best); need for independence since this football code is the one that attracts champions; need for affiliation as we do what our mates do; c) Local nightclub—need for cues since we go to the right nightclub; need for novelty as we go out after a hard week of work and study; need for ego defence, social expression, affiliation and modelling as we do what everyone else does and be seen at the right place; d) Cadbury Old Gold chocolate—need for novelty as we treat ourselves; e) Vitamins—need for causation since we must look after ourselves to be healthy; need for cues with words like ‘natural’ means it must be good for us; need for independence as we strive to look after ourselves better; need for modelling as we look at how others look good. These answers are not exhaustive. That is why the rationale behind the answers was important. 4. Interview five friends. Ask the following questions: a) Which charity(s) have you donated to in the last 6 months? b) How often do you donate your money or time? c) Why did you donate your money (or time)? d) Why did you not donate more, or on a regular basis? Prepare a report on the role of motivational conflict in the decision to donate to a charity. How could a charity overcome some of this conflict to encourage people to give more of their money or time? Students should be able to determine how more than one conflict could arise. Avoidance–avoidance conflict will be relevant when people are expected to give, but don’t necessarily want to. A marketer may need to show donors exactly how their money is used or reward them with an appreciation letter. Approach–Avoidance conflict will occur when a consumer wants to donate, but they don’t necessarily have the time or money. This could be alleviated by flexible arrangements—such as offering monthly IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 84 or regular giving, one-off donations instead of regular giving, etc. Approach–Approach conflict will occur when someone will have to forgo the chance to attend a party to help out at an event. Alternatively they might have to forgo a purchase, to donate to a charity. Letters of appreciation or appealing to self-esteem or social needs through some sense of recognition could be used by the marketer. The most relevant form of conflict will be approach–approach conflict. 5. How would you use emotion to develop a promotional campaign for the following products? a) sports car b) supermarket c) fun park like Dreamworld d) Red Cross e) deodorant a) Sports car—the emotions that could be used include excitement, desire for adventure, desire for self esteem, playful, dominant. b) Supermarket—light-hearted, comfortable atmosphere c) Fun park like Dreamworld—joyful, happy, delighted, pleased, fun, adventurous, entertaining, exciting. d) Red Cross—fear of those events happening to you, frustrated, moral and dutiful, caring. e) Deodorant—fear of social BO, embarrassed or humiliated, desire, calming. These emotions are not exhaustive. Students may also describe the messages or setting of the ad, and how it will be executed. IRM t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb Page 85