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Test Date Fri, 10/14____
UNIT III – CLASSIFICATION & TAXONOMY
I. BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION (pp. 447-450)
Classification is the _grouping of items (living or non-living) based on similarities_______________________________
The branch of biology concerned with the grouping and naming of organisms is known as _taxonomy_____.
A. Categories of Classification
1. Kingdom – broadest category, groups of closely related _phyla_________
2. Phylum – groups of closely related _classes___________
3. Class – groups of closely related _orders__________
4. Order - groups of closely related _families__________
5. Family - groups of closely related _genera_______
6. Genus - groups of closely related _species___________
7. Species – _Smallest_____ and most _closely-related_____ group; organisms that share _specific characteristics
and can _interbreed__________
*Memory Helpers – Choose one to write down & learn!*
_Kingwood Plays Creekwood On Fresh Green Sod_______
OR
_Kingwood Players Can Only Fight Ghetto Style_________
OR
_Kings Play Chess On Fat Guys’ Stomachs_____________
OR
_King Philip Came Over For Grape Soda / Good Soup____
*Memory Helper *
_____________________________________________________________________________________
B. Binomial Nomenclature
Carolus Linnaeus developed the 2-words naming system for classification in the 1700s that is still used today. In this
system, known as _binomial nomenclature__________, groups are formed according to _physical characteristics____
and then each organism is assigned a 2-part scientific name. The scientific name is the _genus___ and
_species__ of the organism. The genus and species names are always _italized___ or _underlined_____.
_Genus____ is capitalized, _species____ is not. The scientific name for humans is _Homo sapiens___________.
II. THE SIX KINGDOMS OF LIFE
(pp. 471-474, 497, 498, 527-529, 551, 657-660)
A. Kingdom Archaebacteria
1. Cell Type - _prokaryotic___
2. Cell Structure - _cell wall without peptidoglycan; cell membrane, ribosomes, DNA,
cytosol present___
3. Body Form - _all unicellular (single-celled)_______
4. Nutrition - _autotrophic or heterotrophic________________
5. Other Characteristics – Considered to be the most _ancient_ of organisms; live in very _harsh___
conditions like _extreme___ temperatures, high _salt___concentration, etc. Another group of
Archaebacteria live in the _digestive___ system of animals and produce _methane___ gas.
B. Kingdom Eubacteria
1. Cell Type - _prokaryotic____
2. Cell Structure - _cell walls with peptidoglycan, cell membrane, ribosomes, DNA, cytosol
present____
3. Body Form - _all unicellular_____________________________________
4. Nutrition – Mostly _heterotrophic__; some are _autotrophic_______
5. Other Characteristics – Most _common_____ bacteria. They are ubiquitous which means they
are _everywhere!!_____. Very important _decomposers_______. Some are _pathogenic_____
(disease-producing), but _most are harmless or even helpful_____________.
6. Examples - _E. coli, Strep, Staph___________
C. Kingdom Protista
1. Cell Type - _eukaryotic__________________
2. Cell Structure – May have _cell wall_____; may have _chloroplasts_____; May be _motile__ and
have _cilia____ or _flagella____.
3. Body Form – Mostly _unicellular____; may be _multicellular______
4. Nutrition - _autotrophic or heterotrophic_______
5. Other Characteristics – Nicknamed “_catch-all___” kingdom or “_junk drawer of life! ______”.
Contains _eukaryotes______ that don’t “fit” into other kingdoms. Protists are sub-grouped according
to which _eukaryotic___ kingdom they’re most like; for example, _animal__-like, _plant___-like, or
_fungus__-like.
6. Examples - _amoeba, paramecium, molds, algae___________________
D. Kingdom Fungi
1. Cell Type - _eukaryotic_______
2. Cell Structure – Have _cell walls___ made of _chitin___. Fungi do not have _chloroplasts!__.
3. Body Form – Mostly _multicellular____; may be _unicellular__. Single-celled fungi are known as
_yeasts______.
4. Nutrition – All _heterotrophic____! Obtain nutrients through a process called _absorption____,
meaning food is digested _extracellularly (outside of body) ___ by secretion of _enzymes____,
then absorbed by fungi.
5. Other Characteristics – Principle _decomposers________. Also important in _brewing__ and
_baking_____. All _non-motile____.
6. Examples - _yeasts, mushrooms, molds_________
E. Kingdom Plantae
1. Cell Type - _eukaryotic________
2. Cell Structure – Have _cell walls____ made of _cellulose___; _chloroplasts___ present.
3. Body Form – All _multicellular_____
4. Nutrition – All _autotrophic______
5. Other Characteristics – Most contain _organs___ and _organ systems_____. All
_non-motile______ with specialized _reproductive________ structures.
6. Examples - _mosses, ferns, etc________________
F. Kingdom Animalia
1. Cell Type - _eukaryotic____
2. Cell Structure – Never have _cell walls!____.
3. Body Form – All _multicellular_____
4. Nutrition – All _heterotrophic_______
5. Other Characteristics – Most _complex_______ of all kingdoms. Most organisms contain
_organs____ and _organ systems_____. All members are capable of _movement_____
sometime during lifetime. Most animals are _invertebrates__ meaning they _do not have ____
a backbone. All vertebrates belong to Phylum _Chordata______.
6. Examples - _sponges, coral, insects, etc______________
III. TAXONOMY
A. The Kingdoms of Life
DNA analysis has had a major impact on the classification system, changing the long-accepted system of _5____
kingdoms to _6___ kingdoms. The two prokaryotic kingdoms, _Archaebacteria___ and _Eubacteria_____ were
originally classified together as Kingdom _Monera__.
B. The Three Domains of Life
Recently, further studies have led taxonomists to propose a classification system which includes three “superkingdoms” called _domains______.
1. Domain Archaea – Includes the _Archaebacteria______
2. Domain Bacteria – Includes all remaining prokaryotes or the _Eubacteria____
3. Domain Eukarya – Includes all eukaryotic kingdoms - _Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia_______________
A CLOSER LOOK AT KINGDOM PLANTAE
I. INTRODUCTION
(pp. 551-552)
Plants are placed into groups based on structural and functional similarities, but all plants share the following characteristics:
A. Plants are _eukaryotic____, _multicellular____ organisms with _organs & organ systems_________________
B. All plant cells have _cell walls___ composed of _cellulose_____.
C. Plants are _autotrophic____, which means they can use energy from the _sun___ to make _glucose__ in _photosynthesis___.
Photosynthesis takes place in the _chloroplasts_____ of plant cells. The equation for photosynthesis is
_CO2 + H2O + light energy → C6 H12 O6 + O2____________________.
D. Plants are _non-motile_____; therefore, special adaptations are required for _reproduction_______.
II. PLANT STRUCTURE & GROWTH
(pp. 579 - 597)
A. Plant Transport
Larger plants must have a way to transport _water_, _minerals__, and _glucose________. This is carried out by two types of
_vessels____. Together the vessels (cells working together) make up a _tissue______ in plants known as _vascular___ tissue.
Plants are divided into two groups, based on whether or not they have vascular tissue.
1. Xylem transports _water___ & _minerals____ from the _root___ to the rest of the plant.

Water always moves in 1 direction – from the _root_____stem____leaves______

Water evaporates from the plant through opening on the underside of the leaves called _stomata____.
2. Phloem transports _glucose_____ from the _leaves______ to the rest of the plant.

It carries sugars in _all___ directions.

Sugar can be carried from where it is made (usually the leaves) to where it is stored (usually stems and roots).
B. Plant Growth
1. Primary Growth – Lifelong growth occurs at the tips of the _stems__ and the end of the _roots__ in tissue called the
_meristem_______.

_Apical___ meristem is located at the tips of stems and roots (group of undifferentiated cells that divide to produce
increased length of stems and roots)
2. Secondary Growth – Trees and some other plants have a second type of meristem tissue; allows them to grow in width or girth.

__Lateral meristem____ is the meristem tissue that allows plants to get wider.
C. Roots
Roots _anchor the plant______, absorb _water___ and _minerals___ from the soil, and transport these materials to the stem.
Some plants also store food in their roots. Each root has root hairs, tiny extensions of epidermal cells that increase
_surface area____ for _water absorption_____.

Water is absorbed into the plant by the process of _osmosis______.

There are two kinds of roots: Taproot - a large, main, primary root. Example= __carrot; most plants__
Fibrous - branching, secondary roots. Example = _grasses_____
D. Stems
Stems have two main functions:

_Support____ leaves and flowers.

Transporting _water___ via _xylem___ and _glucose____ via _phloem____.
Some plant stems have the additional job of _glucose storage – starch; for example, potatoes____________.
E. Leaves

The actual leaf is the _blade__. It is attached to the stem by a by a thin structure called a _petiole___.

The vascular tissue enters the leaf through the petiole and forms the _vein __ of the leaf.
Leaves are the main organ for _photosynthesis____. They have a large surface area for maximum _light absorption______. The
structures of a leaf include:
1. Cuticle - _Waxy_____ covering to prevent _water loss_____
2. Epidermis – Outermost layer of cells; prevents _injury, infection_____
3. Mesophyll - _Photosynthetic______ layer of leaf
a. Palisade layer – Upper portion of mesophyll with closely packed cells; site of most _photosynthesis_____
b. Spongy layer – Underside of leaf; loosely-packed cells to allow for exchange of _CO2 and O2_____
4. Vein - _xylem___ + _phloem___
5. Stomata – Opening in underside of leaf that allows _ CO2_(carbon dioxide)_ to enter; _ O2_(oxygen)____ to exit.
6. Guard Cells – Control size of _stomata_____. Work to preserve balance between allowing for gas exchange
without losing too much _water__. “Plant sweat” is known as _transpiration___.
III. PLANT CLASSIFICATION
Plants are divided into two basic groups based on whether they contain _vascular____ tissue:
A. Bryophytes – No vascular tissue present
(pp. 556-559)
Bryophytes, or _mosses____, are the only group of plants that lack vascular tissue. This limits both the _size______
and _location__________ of this group of plants. Mosses are _small____ and typically live in _moist_______
areas. In addition, a moist climate is required because mosses have _”swimming”_______ sperm. The sperm must
swim to the _egg__ cell in order for _fertilization_______ to take place.
B. Tracheophytes
(pp. 560 - 562)
Tracheophytes are vascular plants which allows them to _grow taller________ and
_live in drier climates___________________________. The tracheophytes are further subdivided based on the
presence or absence of pollen, seeds, and fruit:

Pterophytes – No pollen, no seeds, no fruits
Pterophytes are commonly called _ferns_____. Although ferns contain vascular tissue, they are still found predominantly in
moist climates because the sperm must _swim_____ to the egg cell.
C. Tracheophytes with Seeds
All other _tracheophytes_____ produce seeds. Seeds provide a tremendous reproductive advantage. A seed consists of an
_embryo_____ surrounded by a tough protective coat.

Advantages of Seeds
1. _Protection____
2. Nourishment - _Starch____ is stored in the seed for developing _embryo____
3. Dispersal - Easily spread by _wind, animals, water____; reduces competition for _nutrients_______
4. Dormancy - Seeds remain dormant or _inactive______ until conditions are _favorable___

Seed Germination - The first visible evidence that a seed is germinating is the emergence of the embryo's _root____,
followed by the growth of an embryonic shoot that develops into the plant's _stem_________.

Types of Seed Plants
o
Gymnosperms – Have pollen and seeds, no fruit.
The word, “gymnosperm” means _naked seed_______ because the seed is not protected by a
_fruit____. A unique characteristic of gymnosperms is the presence of _cones______. The
largest and most common phyla is _conifers_______ which includes _evergreens____.
Conifers have characteristic leaves called _needles___, which are modified to _reduce water loss____
and _minimize ice build-up________. In addition, gymnosperms (and angiosperms) have “flying sperm” or
_pollen___, so they are no longer tied to _water__ for reproduction.
o
Angiosperms – Have pollen, seeds, and fruit
IV. ANGIOSPERMS - TRACHEOPHYTES WITH SEEDS & FRUIT (pp. 569 - 572)
Angiosperms are the most complex and adaptable of all plant groups. They are also the most successful due to two important
modifications:
A. Fruit - A fruit is a mature _ovary___ that contains one or more seeds. It provides the embryo with greater
_protection______ and _nourishment________ than found in gymnosperm seeds. The fruit also increases
seed dispersal because fruits are eaten by _animals____, seeds pass through _digestive tract______________
and are _eliminated____. Some fruits are not intended to be _edible_____.
B. Flower - The flower is the reproductive system of the angiosperm. It enhances _pollination________, which occurs
as a first step to fertilization.
1. The male reproductive organ is the _stamen__, which consists of the _anther__ and _filament______.
_Pollen___, is produced by the anther and contains the _male gamete - sperm_________.
2. The female reproductive organ is the _pistil (carpel)___, which consists of the sticky top called the _stigma___,
a neck called the _style______ and a base called the _ovary________. The ovary contains the female
gametes - _egg cells___ or _ova____. During _pollination____, pollen is transferred from the _anther_____ to the
_”sticky stigma”____. When a pollen grain lands on a stigma, it sends out a _pollen tube__ that grows through the style to the
_ovary__. One the sperm reached the egg cell, fertilization takes place.
3. The _petals_____ are usually colorful to attract pollinators.
4. The _sepals___ are protective green _leaves____ at the base of a flower. They protect the bud before the flower blooms.
C. Types of Angiosperms
1. Angiosperms are further classified into two groups based on characteristics.

Monocots include plants such as _grasses, lilies______. Monocot seeds have _one_____ cotyledon (seed leaf).
These are seeds that cannot be split in half, like a piece of corn.

Dicots are more abundant and include plants such as _oaks, roses, impatiens______________. Dicots have
_two___ cotyledons. These seeds can be split in half like peanuts and beans.
2. Angiosperms may also be classified according to the length of their life cycle.
•
Annual- flowering plant that completes a life cycle within _one_ growing season.
•
Biennial- flowering plant that completes its life cycle in _two years______.
•
Perennial- flowering plant that _grows for many years_______.
V. PLANT HORMONES AND RESPONSE
A hormone is a chemical substance that is produced in one part of an organism and affects another part of the same
individual. Plant hormones are chemical substances that control a plant’s patterns of _growth and development__________,
A. Hormones
1. Auxins – Produced in the _apical meristem tissue_____; transported throughout the rest of the plant. Works by
“stretching” _cell walls____ to elongate shoot, stem, and/or root.
2. Cytokinins - Produced in growing roots and in developing fruits/seeds. Cytokinins stimulate _mitosis____,
growth of lateral _branches___, and dormant seeds to _germinate_________. Cytokinins often produce effects
opposite to those of auxin.
3. Gibberellins - Produce dramatic increase in _stem length_____ by stimulating _mitosis______ and increasing
_cell size________.
4. Ethylene - _Gaseous_____ hormone that stimulates _ripening___ of fruit.
5. Abscisic Acid - _Inhibits____ growth. Used to maintain seed _dormancy____ and tolerate _drought___________.
B. Tropism - Response of a plant to an environmental _stimulus____.
1. Phototropism - Tendency of a plant to grow toward a source of _light____. _Auxin__ production increases in the
_dark__ part of the stem; causes the dark side of the stem to elongate → stem to bends toward _light________.
2. Gravitropism - Response to _gravity_________ due to action of _auxin__. This assures that roots grow down and stems
grow up.
3. Thigmotropism - Response to _touch_. May be used for _protection___, to capture _food____, or allow a plant to grow on a
surface for support.