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Intro to Words and Phrases Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sehnaz Sahinkarakas Word Classes • Traditional classification of words (eight parts of speech): • Noun • Pronoun • Adjective • Adverb • Verb • Preposition • Conjunction • Interjection • However, four of them (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) are different from other word classes. How? • They constitute 99% of our vocabulary • They can have particular endings / suffixes NOUNS • Traditional Definition of Noun: a person, a place, a thing • However, a noun like «kindness» is not exactly a thing: • A new definition should be considered! • Let’s consider ‘Noun Inflections’ (modification of a word to express different grammatical categories) • A new definition of noun (based on form) might be: • A noun is a word that can be made plural and/or possessive. NOUN PHRASE • Phrase: any group of words that functions as a unit within the sentence • A phrase always has a head/headword • Headword of the noun phrase is a noun • Most noun phrases include a noun signaler (determiner) • Egs (headwords underlined; determiners in italics) • The headword • A unit • The traditional definition Determiners in Noun Phrases • A) articles (‘a’ and ‘the’) • a unit • the traditional definition • B) functions of nouns and pronouns in the possessive case • Mary’s laugh • her new car • C) demonstrative pronouns – this, that, these, those • this old house • those expensive sneakers • Which noun phrases do NOT have determiners? • Proper nouns --names of people (Mary) and places (Turkey) • Plural nouns with a general meaning (cats) • Thus, it is possible to say that (not considering the exceptions), most noun phrases begin with a determiner; i.e., when you see a determiner, be sure you are at the beginning of a noun phrase • The new definition: • A noun is a word that can be made plural and/or possessive; it occupies the headword position in the noun phrase; it is usually signaled by a determiner. Exercise 1 • Identify the determiners and headwords in the following sentences • 1. The students rested after their long trip. • 2. Our new neighbors across the hall became our best friends. • 3. Mickey’s roommate studies in the library on rainy weekends. • 4. A huge crowd lined the streets for the big parade. • 5. This new lasagna recipe feeds an enormous crowd. • 6. Jessica made her new boyfriend a batch of chocolate chip cookies. • Now, go to p. 10 and do Exercise 1 Group Discussion • Turn each list of words into a noun phrase and use it in a sentence. Compare your sentences with a classmate’s; they will be different but not your noun phrases! • • • • • 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. table, the, wooden, small my, sneakers, roommate’s, new cotton, white, T-shirts, the, other, all gentle, a, on the head, tap the, with green eyes, girl VERBS • Traditional definition: an action word; however, ‘expect’ is not an action • There are five forms of verbs Base form -s form Past tense Past participle Present participle laugh laughs laughed laughed eat eats ate eaten laughing eating To Be • ‘to be’ has 8 forms: am, is, are, was, were, been, being, be • Not considering this exception, the definition of a verb: • A verb is a word that shows tense, such as present and past tenses Group Discussion • Many words can serve as either nouns or verbs • I made a promise to my boss. (noun) • I promised to be on time for work. (verb) • He offered to help us. (verb) • We accepted his offer. (noun) • Write a pair of short sentences for each of the following words (as nouns and verbs): • visit plant feature VERB PHRASE • • • • Headword of a verb phrase: verb Other components depend on the subclass of the verb E.g. It might be followed by a noun phrase A noun phrase follows a transitive verb, • The cat chased transitive the mouse. noun phrase • but not an intransitive verb • Cats fight. intransitive • In many sentences, the verb phrase include one or two adverbials (Mary laughed loudly) • Like in noun phrase, a verb phrase can be completed with only the headword. • E.g. Cats fight; Mary laughed. • These are single-word verb phrases and are very rare • Most of the time the formula: • NP + VP = S • The NP functions as the subject of the sentence; the VP functions as the predicate. • Now go to p.11 and do Exercise 2 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS • Can generally be recognized by their form and/or by their position in the sentence. • The inflectional endings that identify adjectives and some adverbs are the comparative suffix, -er and the superlative, est. Adjective big bigger biggest Adverb near nearer nearest • When the word has two or more syllables, the comparative and superlative markers are generally more and most. Adjective beautiful more beautiful most beautiful Adverb quickly more quickly most quickly • Another way of testing if a word is an adjective or adverb is its ability to pattern with a qualifier, such as very Very beautiful very quickly • How do we differentiate an adjective and an adverb? • -ly Adjective quick pleasant happy Adverb + + + ly ly ly = = = quickly pleasantly happily • -ly in adverbs is a derivational suffix (rather than inflectional suffix): it enables us to derive adverbs from adjectives. • There are some other adverbs without –ly: then now soon here there everywhere afterwards often sometimes always seldom • How do we identify an adverb in a sentence? • By the kind of information it supplies to the sentence: • information of time, place, manner, frequency, … • it answers such questions as where, when, why, how, and how often • on the basis of their position in the predicate and their movability Adverbs or adjectives? • Adjectives are positioned between the determiner and the headword This new recipe an enormous crowd • Adverbs are part of the predicate (modify verbs) Some residents spoke passionately for the ordinance. Mario suddenly hit the brakes. • And they can often be moved to a different place in the predicate Mario hit the brakes suddenly. Suddenly Mario hit the brakes. Now, go to p. 14 for Group Discussion PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES • A two-part structure consisting of a preposition followed by an object (generally a noun phrase) • They may appear as part of a noun phrase or as a modifier of the verb • In a noun phrase, prepositional phrase adds a detail or makes clear the identity of the noun • E.g.: Our new neighbors across the hall became our best friends. • It serves like an adjective (answers which neighbors) so it is called adjectival prepositional phrase. • We can also see adverbial prepositional phrases: • E.g. 1: Our good friends live across the hall. • (answers the question ‘where’) • E.g. 2: The students rested after their long trip. After their long trip, the students rested. • (answers the question ‘when’) • Modifiers of nouns are called adjectivals. • Modifiers of verbs are called adverbials. • Now, go to p.15 for Exercise 3 More exercises on adjectivals and adverbials • Identify the underlined prepositional phrases as either adjectival or adverbial • 1. A huge crowd lined the streets for the big parade. • 2. Bill got a new MacBook Air for his birthday. • 3. Some residents of the community spoke against the ordinance. • 4. The merchants in town are unhappy. • 5. I googled Tony’s blog on my BlackBerry. More exercises on adjectivals and adverbials • 6. This was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times. • • 7. Kingdoms became more centralized after the breakup of the Empire. • • 8. Over a hundred years and more, all the territory was eventually conquered by the Romans. • • 9. The distinction between North Africa and much of Sub-Saharan Africa is historically and ecologically significant. • • 10. The reasons for the decline of the Empire are still debated today More exercise on adjectival and adverbial • 11. It also creates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy, associated with tourism. • • 12. The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect. • • 13. Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. • • 14. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally mild.