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Cale Kassel
History 391X
Dr. Charles M. Dobbs
1. American Diplomacy during the Second World War
American diplomacy during the Second World War served several ends. FDR
and Truman sought to control Soviet influence while expand American ideas on free
markets and trade throughout the world.
The first goal of American diplomacy during the Second World War was to bring
defeat to the Axis. Diplomatic concerns focused on what conditions the surrender would
be under. The course of the war aims also concerned the White House. During the initial
phase of the war, Americans focused on a defensive strategy, fortifying positions already
established by the Allied forces to that point and set the forces up for an offensive
strategy. The best example came during the War in the Pacific, after the Battle at
Midway; the US began their offensive push towards Japan and their great drive across the
Central Pacific. The United States knew unconditional surrender was the only course of
action against the Japanese. With the development of the atomic bomb, they knew the
key to this was in their control. Rather than push for a land invasion, the bomb was
dropped and eventually the Japanese surrendered.
Americans also tried hard to keep the Allied Coalition together during the final
phases of the war. Rivalries developed between the Russian and the Americans, and
depending on whom you ask, the Cold War began during the final years of World War II.
Some worried about the Nationalist in China and the US policy towards the large
country. FDR seemed to feel the PRC could grow to an immense power and help the
United States in the war with Japan. (Paterson, p. 135-136) However, the feud between
the Nationalist lead by Jiang Jieshi who supported a government that was not communist
and the Communists by Mao Zedong who possessed a superior army to battle the
Japanese. According the Paterson, it seemed as though the biggest problem the United
States had involved sending bad diplomats to discuss with the Chinese. Blunders by
Hurley and Stilwell created more problems than they resolved. In the end, nothing much
became of the relations with China and the United States.
A reoccurring theme throughout the war saw the United States working hard to
open more trade doors and improve the economic prowess of the world to prevent
another scenario that led to World War II. In this attempt, a struggle developed between
the US and Great Britain. The English wanted to keep their Empire intact, while the
American envoy hoped to increase world trade with reforms in Great Britain. On a side
note, the US also worried during the end of the War about trade with Brazil and the Axis
powers since trade occurred frequently between the two. The Soviet Union and the
British often feuded as well. The concern over the Balkans and Poland divided the two
governments. (Paterson, p 145) Stalin hoped to extend his sphere influence to Greece
and Romania and other countries in the very tumultuous area. England however hoped to
continue their empirical control over the area as well and continue to trade with region.
They also feared the early spread of communism beyond the Soviet Empire. In the end,
Churchill granted Stalin a large portion of control in Bulgaria and Romania, while the
English maintained some control and a major stake of Greece. The deal pleased Stalin by
allowing him to expand his sphere. (Paterson, p. 145)
Planning for the postwar world probably represented the single most important
and lasting impact of American diplomacy during the war. The first and maybe the more
important of the two, was the Bretton Woods conference. At the conference, forty-four
nations attended to make plans for the postwar, expand trade, and provide to improve
world economic ability. At the conference in New Hampshire, the International
Monetary Fund and the World Bank developed. The World Bank, also known as the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development extended loans to help rebuild as
well as promote long term and balanced trade in the world. (Paterson, p. 140) Bretton
Woods served to place the United States firmly in the driver’s seat as far as economic
rebuilding went following the war. The World Bank’s president always came from
America and the US possessed one third of the votes in the organization as well as a large
portion of the capital behind it. Bretton Woods also established the International
Monetary fund, which served to regulate, and stabilize currency for international trade.
(Paterson, p. 140) Not surprisingly, the Soviet Union stayed out of the Bretton Woods
agreement, fearing the release of their state-controlled finances and information.
(Paterson, 140)
The second and more recognizable organization to come out of the era of wartime
diplomacy was the United Nations. The UN, established at Dumbarton Oaks, sought to
create an international organization to oversee international politics and handle
international affairs. Although Russia was invited, they left shortly after arriving and
China arrived the same day the Russians left. The UN grew into a much larger
organization following the war as it handled the reshaping and rebuilding of Europe.
The Yalta Conference took place in February of 1945 with the US, UK, and
USSR all in attendance. However, by this time, the UK lacked the political power it once
did and FDR’s health was beginning to fail. The results of the post-war planning
conference involved the division of Germany and the borders of Poland. Though much
discussion and head butting took place, compromises were made. In regards to Poland,
the Curzon line served as the temporary eastern boarder. This satisfied the Soviets
because they received a portion of Poland while the US and UK made the Polish
government a more democratic and self-sufficient authority. The “free elections” never
amounted to much as Soviet influence soon took over Poland. In Germany, the British
allowed the disarmament of Germany if France was given a reoccupation zone. This was
granted and the basic shape of reconstructed Germany began to take shape. The Potsdam
conference continued this discussion.
The United States took a leadership role in shaping diplomacy at the end of World
War II. Their leadership in the UN, IMF, and World Bank helped provide for a more
stable world following war and prevented the same troubles that followed the First World
War.
2. American Diplomacy between the Soviet Union and Europe through 1949
The American policy following World War II continued their leadership during
the War. Seeing the need for leadership, both politically and economically, the US set
out to build a stronger world. At the same time, they strived to protect this stronger
world from the threat of communism by instituting democratic measures in developing
countries. The battle between the communist and the US developed into the Cold War
and shaped diplomatic policy for the next 40 years.
The end of the Second World War brought about the emergence of the United
States as a superpower. Former powers like Germany, France, England, and the Dutch al
faced the tremendous task of rebuilding their war torn countries while trying to maintain
their empire. According to Paterson, many territories held by these countries were
relinquished shortly after the end of the war. India, Burma, and Indonesia all became
independent and the US touted itself as the great power now. (Paterson, p. 157) These
countries also needed supplies in the form of finished goods and foodstuffs. The US
again stood up to the challenge and with their economy humming at full speed from the
war, continued the output to provide for the rebuilding effort as well. In 1947, over a
third of world exports came from the United States. (Paterson, p. 159) The new era of
American power meant both economic and politically. During most conferences, the
United States wielded its power to gain leverage and push democracy, free trade, and free
markets to the world.
The Cold War origins developed from many things, but perhaps the most
important arose from the postwar planning. First FDR and then Truman pushed hard for
free markets and an “Open Door.” (Paterson, p. 160) The western powers seemed the
feel a showdown would develop too. The Soviets occupied vast portions of East Europe,
Poland, and East Germany. The big question then became, what would happen to these
countries. Fearing a communist take over, the United States upped their rhetoric and took
a hard stance against communism. This stance following World War II drove the Cold
War forward and the bulk of the reasoning traces back to this stance.
One of the best examples of this rhetoric was the Long Telegram. George F.
Kennan wrote a description of the Soviets from the embassy in Moscow. In it, he
described how the West committed no failures, but rather, the problems developed within
the Soviet Union. The Soviets seemed unfit to lead and covered up atrocities with
hostility towards the United States. The telegram served as the strategy towards the
Soviets for the rest of the Cold War. (Gaddis, p. 29)
Another important piece of work the developed during Cold War read “ It must be
the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted
subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.” (Paterson, p. 165) These
famous words became known as the Truman Doctrine. Refusing to back down from
Russian pressure, President Truman pressed on, hoping to exert the power and politics to
the whole world. Hoping to move away from the anti-communist discussion, the Truman
Doctrine sought to provide for countries suppressed by authoritarian governments. The
greatest fruits of this doctrine came in the form of the Marshall Plan.
The Marshall Plan went hand in hand with the Truman Doctrine and containment.
Hoping to protect Western Europe from depression, George C. Marshall proposed a plan
to link economies of the Untied States with those of France and England and created a
self-reliant system rather than a “shopping list.” (Paterson, p. 168) Although initially
included, the Soviets backed out of the plan. They felt the plan sought to drain the power
of Russian from Western Europe and allow the United States to press their will on the
European nations. The benefits of the plan though brought Europe on their feet and off
of America’s back. (Paterson, p. 169)
Another key development in the post war era was the charting of NATO. The
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, rivaled by the Warsaw Pact, formed between the US,
Canada, and ten European countries. The organization stated that an attack on one would
be considered an attack on all. (Paterson, p. 170) Though many fretted this would draw
the US into many European affairs, the organization served a large symbolic gesture too.
It kept the Soviets out (see Warsaw Pact) and promoted peace and serve as a spark in the
rebuilding stages. It also committed the United States to the European continent, which
helped stir up morale among the member nations.
At the same time, President Truman ordered a review of foreign policy. Dubbed
NSC-68, the report offered a bleak outlook on foreign affairs. Paterson argued that the
report over exaggerated the threat of the Soviets by speaking too much of the “free
world” even though the US supported undemocratic nations and assumed much about the
Soviets with little evidence. (Paterson, p. 171) This document served as another guiding
force throughout the Cold War.
The doctrine of containment and the hard stance against communism promoted
and prolonged the Cold War. Knowing the importance of a stable Europe for American
economic well-being, the US focused on policies like the Marshall Plan to serve their
interests as well as the interests of Europe.
3. Eisenhower’s Foreign Policy towards the Soviet Union
Fear ruled the day in the late 1940s and 1950s as the growing communist threat
reared down on the United States. Dwight D. Eisenhower set a policy before the
American people, however which served both to calm and stand firm towards
communism.
As Eisenhower served as president, the death of Soviet Premier Stalin ushered in
a new era of the Cold War. Some described it as a thaw as the new premier, Nikita
Khrushchev appeared more open to talks and discussion than Stalin. However, the
military build-up continued during the Eisenhower administration. Nuclear weapons
grew from 1,200 to 22,229 and in 1959 Americans served in forty-two countries.
(Paterson, p. 191) During his administration, Eisenhower worked hard to advocate peace.
He negotiated with the Soviets, tried striking deals to limit nuclear weapons, which he did
successfully, just not with the Soviets, and withheld the use of nuclear weapons in
Indochina. (Paterson, p. 190) In the end though, Eisenhower continued the arms race
and build-up of the Cold War.
Cooperation grew during the 1950s. One instance of cooperation occurred in
1955 when both Soviet and American powers reached an agreement to allow the
restoration of Austria as a neutral state. The United States hoped that Austria could serve
as a model for other Soviet occupied states while the Russians felt that their work showed
communism and democracy could coexist. Additionally, the major powers of the world
met in Geneva to discuss the current state of affairs. Secretary of State Dulles remained
hesitant, but the convention went on anyway. Sadly little got done at the summit other
than “it occurred.” (Paterson, p. 193) They tried to reach an agreement on arms control,
but neither side (US, UK, France vs. USSR) agreed on the means to that end.
Additionally, Eisenhower pushed his “Open Skies” policy to share maps and information
on military bases. Even though the Soviets failed to comply, Eisenhower knew it
mattered very little since by 1956 he began flying U2 spy planes over the USSR anyway
and gathered the information that way instead. However, this thaw seemed only
temporary and superficial.
Conlfict in Hungary in 1956 spurred the Russians to suppress the revolt. Local
revolutionaries in Budapest pulled the nation out of the Warsaw Pact, essentially saw to
communist leaders, “we are finished with you.” Fearful of what this would do to
American interests in Eastern Europe, Khrushchev moved to intervene. In early
November of 1956 hand-to-tank combat killed some 3000 Soviets and over 20,000
Hungarians. Secretary of State Dulles, who pushed for liberation of communist
countries, felt things were shaping up nicely and that the United States should continue to
push for change. In 1953, they passed the Captive Peoples’ Resolution that supported
and encouraged “self-determination” in Eastern Europe. (Paterson, p. 195) The US also
continued to broadcast messages through Radio Free Europe and Voice of America.
These stations transmitted pro-America and anti-communist propaganda to encourage
citizens behind the Iron Curtain to challenge their suppression.
Eisenhower also set in motion a change in education and policy of America. The
launch of Sputnik brought fear to many Americans as did the testing six, actually four,
intercontinental ballistic missiles. The United States knew, however, that the Russians
talked much bigger than they should have. Either way, military build-up continued,
NASA was born, and the National Defense Education Act funded education in science,
technology, and foreign languages. (Paterson, p. 196) The United States set a course to
maintain superiority over the Soviets and this continued to spur on the Cold War.
Another crisis that befell the Eisenhower Administration came in 1953. Revolts
and demonstrations in the eastern part of Germany led to discontent among world leaders.
Khrushchev knew the draw of West Berlin and West Germany with more than a million
people leaving East Berlin to the western half a year. (Gaddis, p. 113) So in 1958, he
issued an ultimatum to the western powers. In it, he outlined a take over East Berlin by
East Germany. The US felt this could be a huge blow to stability and agreed to talks on
East and West. Little became of the talks though, since the United States knew
Khrushchev had little bargaining power. Another event out shadowed the crisis and
presented an even larger problem.
The United States used U2 spy planes for some time in the 1950’s. On May 1st,
1960 though, trouble arose. Gary Power’s U2 spy plane was shot down in Russia and
failing to dispose of the evidence and himself, the Russian captured the pilot. When the
United States played if off like an off-course weather plane, the Soviets called their bluff
by showing powers and the equipment in the plane. (Gaddis, p. 73) Knowing their
blunder, the United States tried to move past the incident. Khrushchev knew the
importance of showing the Americans in this negative light and made negotiations over
East Germany more difficult by leaving or not attending new conferences like the one in
Paris of 1960-1961. (Paterson, p. 197) Essentially, he ended his communication with
President Eisenhower until the new president was elected.
The Eisenhower administration served well in the Cold War era. Though some
felt he pushed too hard to build-up arms and focus on the power struggle, Eisenhower as
worked hard to establish some ties to the Kremlin. In this work with Premier
Khrushchev, he paved the way for Kennedy and Johnson to improve relations with the
Soviets.