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Memory Notes
The Information Processing Model of Memory
1. Memory Generally
(a) Processing information so that it can be stored and retrieved at a later date
(b) Persistence, Accuracy, Detail, and Subjective Truthfulness
2. The Information Processing Model
(a) Involves Three Distinct Processes:
i. Encoding
A. parallel to sensation and perception; creating neural impulses out of sensory
experiences
B. establishing cues and neural networks or “engrams”
ii. Storage
A. The retention of information, which may be permanent, and which parallels
cognitive organization
B. Divided into three “Stages”
iii. Retrieval
A. the recall of stored information, either consciously or spontaneously, activated by
cues
(b) Also includes Forgetting
i. loss of information, either purposeful or pathological
3. Encoding
(a) Transduction
i. sensory experiences are turned into neural impulses by the sensory receptors; these
neural impulses travel to the sensory cortices for processing, before being stored as
memories in the association areas
ii. when two types of stimulus are experienced together, neural links (cues) are established
between them
iii. Encoding Specificity: the “best” cue is a cue of the same type as the desired memory
iv. State-Dependent Retrieval: recreating the conditions of the learning environment
stimulates multiple encoding tracks, enhancing memory
A. mood congruence: memory is most accurate when our current emotional state
matches the emotional tone of the memory
(b) Sensory Encoding
i. encoding “tracks” of visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or kinesthetic information
ii. basically “mental images” as discussed in Cognition
iii. “learning styles” may be explained by differences in resources devoted to particular
types of sensory encoding
(c) Verbal Encoding
i. encoding verbal information about experiences
A. organizational encoding – arranging memories based on categorizations (as in
Cognition)
B. semantic encoding – arranging memories based on meanings and definitions
4. Storage
(a) Stage Model of Memory involves Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term memory
i. Sensory Memory
A. temporary storage of sensory information, usually without verbal content
B. duration is 1-5 seconds depending on type
C. general “awareness” rather than deliberate attention
D. includes echoic (auditory) and iconic (visual) memory
E. NO retention. Almost all of this information is lost.
F. Sensory Registers – more or less the sensory processing pathways for each type of
information
ii. Short-Term Memory
A. Deliberate attention to information while we are working with it.
B. Attentional, Intentional, Directed, Selective – just like consciousness
 maintained by the Pre-Frontal Cortex (attention and organization)
C. Limited in duration and capacity
 ~20s – 1m duration (without maintenance rehearsal)
 5 – 9 units of data (without chunking)
D. Distraction of rehearsal results in information loss
E. Overload results in information loss
F. Baddely and Hitch
 structural model of STM which includes the central executive, phonological
loop, visual-spatial sketchpad, and subvocalization
iii. Long-Term Memory
A. Theoretically permanent, unlimited storage of information
B. requires activation of the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe, which act as
indexing systems and keep track of where information is stored
 H.M. – patient had hippocampus removed, subsequently unable to form new
memories (anterograde amnesia) but able to recall some old memories; implicit
memories completely unaffected
C. Consolidation – compression of information and storage of the basic parts for
reassembly by the hippocampus and PFC (think Structuralism)
D. Activated by interaction with information – information must be “important,”
emotional involvement, personalization
 elaborative rehearsal
E. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
 suggests that memorization and recall are cycles of consolidation, recall, and reconsolidation
 produces both stronger memories, and less detailed memories (why?)
5. Retrieval
(a) Recall of stored information
(b) Cued Recall
i. use of external cues (encoding) to stimulate associated neural networks
ii. absence of the cue makes recall difficult or impossible
(c) Recall and Integrity of Memories
i. Long-term potentiation
A. recall strengthens cues and neural networks through sensitization
ii. Retrieval-induced forgetting
A. recall involves suppression of competing networks, making those networks harder to
access
B. recall involves reconsolidation, which corrupts memories
QUESTIONS – INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY
 Very briefly describe encoding, storage, and retrieval
 What is the relationship between memory persistence and memory accuracy?
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What is the encoding specificity principle?
What is sensory memory?
What is short-term memory? What areas of the brain does it involve?
Briefly describe the “limits” of short term memory, and how they can be exceeded.
How is maintenance rehearsal different from elaborative rehearsal?
What are the elements of Baddely and Hitch’s model of short term memory?
Describe long-term potentiation and retrieval-induced forgetting
Briefly summarize the case of H.M.
Explicit and Implicit Memory; Forgetting
1. Types of Memory
(a) Explicit
i. verbal, declarative memory; conscious, deliberate recall
ii. involves structures discussed above
iii. episodic, semantic, and autobiographical memory
iv. prospective and retrospective memory
(b) Implicit
i. unconscious, non-verbal memory
ii. processed by cerebellum, amygdala
iii. emotional, kinesthetic
iv. “how” to do things, rather than “what” things are
v. demonstrative – have to “do” a thing to show retention
A. practice effects; muscle memory
B. implicit learning (including classical conditioning)
 implicit learning
C. emotional memory
2. Forgetting
(a) Purposeful
i. all memory loss is purposeful except pathological loss; loss of information keeps space
open for new information.
(b) Biological/Metabolic
i. Decay theory – loss of information with time/lack of use
ii. Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) – loss is significant early on, but tapers off with time
(c) Motivated
i. Freud
A. Repression
B. Suppression
(d) Procedural
i. Retrieval Cue Failure
ii. Encoding Failure
(e) Pathological
i. Physical
A. concussions
B. Dementia
C. Other illness or injury, surgical damage
ii. Psychological
A. dissociative amnesia/fugue
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memory loss which is catastrophic but has no identifiable physical cause;
assumption is that the cause is psychological
(f) Retrieval-Induced
i. Elizabeth Loftus
A. Misinformation Effect
 lack of information results in confabulation, which can be influenced through
suggestion
B. Imagination Inflation
 source confusion through repetition and pairing with a false memory
 “source” memories only retained temporarily, after which the brain has trouble
determining where information was learned or what information came first
QUESTIONS – EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORY; FORGETTING
 (3 points) How is explicit memory different from implicit memory? Be specific and give
concrete examples. Include any differences in physiology.
 Give an example of prospective memory.
 Describe decay theory. How is the “forgetting curve” different from a more general theory of
memory decay?
 What is the difference between repression and suppression? Give an example of both.
 What is the difference between encoding failure and retrieval cue failure? Give an example of
both.
 Describe how the misinformation effect works. Give an example OTHER than what we have
already talked about.
 Describe how imagination inflation works. What are source memories, and why aren’t they
permanent?
 What is a dissociative fugue?