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Physical Layer
Physical Layer

... Overview of AT&T Telephone Hierarchy •Connections are made at the lowest level possible •The first 3 digits of the number determine the end office •The copper connections at the lowest level are the major obstacle to high-speed service ...
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... DC offset) while the ADC module only accepts unipolar inputs (0-5V). You must design and build a small signal conditioning electronic circuit (Op-Amp Adder) to add a suitable DC offset to the signals adapted to the input range of the ADC. Check the min-max ranges with the oscilloscope and set the ge ...
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... Some meters, called “True rms” meters, measure the rms more directly (and therefore correctly) for all waveforms. These include electrodynamometers (which respond to the square of the current) and thermocouple meters (which respond to Joule heating). Quite often, however, these meters still give VAC ...
When should inverter-duty motors be specified?
When should inverter-duty motors be specified?

... How Inverters Affect Motors Early inverters or VFDs caused significantly higher temperature rise in the motor, and mismatched could easily burn out the motor. As new transistor devices and software attempted to minimize this effect, they introduced other stresses on the motor’s insulation system. It ...
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In order to solve the problem of high voltage conversion

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EENG 3810 Chapter 4 - UNT College of Engineering
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... produce a resultant component that combines with the carrier component. • Phasors for the carrier, upper and lower frequencies all rotate in the counterclockwise direction. • The upper sideband frequency rotates faster than the carrier. (usf > c) • The lower sideband frequency rotes slower than th ...
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... The switches S1 and S2 operate shifted in phase by T/2 with the same duty ratio D,however, the duty ratio must be smaller than 0.5. When switch S1 is on, diode D1 conducts and diode D2 is off; the IV. SIMULATION RESULTS diode states are reversed when switch S2 is Below waveforms shows the output of ...
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... HY-DIV268N-5A subdivision-type two-phase hybrid stepping motor drive using DC 12 ~ 48V power supply, suitable for drive Two-phase hybrid stepping motor dynamic voltage 12 to 48V, the current is less than 5A outer diameter of 35 to 86 mm. This drive using the drive's current loop subdivision control, ...
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Pulse-width modulation



Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers, the other being MPPT.The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load (the device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible. Typically switching has to be done several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being transferred to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a communications channel.
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