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Kirchoff`s Rules
Kirchoff`s Rules

... may recall that Georg Ohm only discovered the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in 1827. Kirchoff was certainly familiar with this work, and he first discovered what are now called Kirchoff’s Circuit Laws during his electrical studies while a student in the 1840s. This later form ...
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... When the output current is higher then the LinSkip current threshold, the charge pump runs continuously at the switching frequency f(OSC). The control circuit, fed from the error amplifier, controls the charge on C1 and C2 by controlling the gates and hence the rDS(ON) of the integrated MOSFETs. Whe ...
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... In the transition mode operation, the PWM circuit is self-oscillating with the turn-on being governed by an inductor zero-current detector (ZCD pin) and the turn-off being governed by the current-sense comparator. Additionally, the controller provides features such as peak current limit, default tim ...
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... The only PAM control is not encouraged as it needs a complicated front stage to achieve voltage regulation function, and is hardly used to less that half of the full range due to the required gas breakdown voltage level The PWM control can fulfill the full load range conditions. However, a small p ...
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... • GP1 output pin pulls the bridge directly to Vdd. GP1 is also used as the reference for the ADC conversion. This way the internal port resistance in the microcontroller has so no influence on the ADC result, even if it does not pull the bridge exactly to vdd. • GP2 is used to measure the differenti ...
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Resistive opto-isolator



Resistive opto-isolator (RO), also called photoresistive opto-isolator, vactrol (after a genericized trademark introduced by Vactec, Inc. in the 1960s), analog opto-isolator or lamp-coupled photocell, is an optoelectronic device consisting of a source and detector of light, which are optically coupled and electrically isolated from each other. The light source is usually a light-emitting diode (LED), a miniature incandescent lamp, or sometimes a neon lamp, whereas the detector is a semiconductor-based photoresistor made of cadmium selenide (CdSe) or cadmium sulfide (CdS). The source and detector are coupled through a transparent glue or through the air.Electrically, RO is a resistance controlled by the current flowing through the light source. In the dark state, the resistance typically exceeds a few MOhm; when illuminated, it decreases as the inverse of the light intensity. In contrast to the photodiode and phototransistor, the photoresistor can operate in both the AC and DC circuits and have a voltage of several hundred volts across it. The harmonic distortions of the output current by the RO are typically within 0.1% at voltages below 0.5 V.RO is the first and the slowest opto-isolator: its switching time exceeds 1 ms, and for the lamp-based models can reach hundreds of milliseconds. Parasitic capacitance limits the frequency range of the photoresistor by ultrasonic frequencies. Cadmium-based photoresistors exhibit a ""memory effect"": their resistance depends on the illumination history; it also drifts during the illumination and stabilizes within hours, or even weeks for high-sensitivity models. Heating induces irreversible degradation of ROs, whereas cooling to below −25 °C dramatically increases the response time. Therefore, ROs were mostly replaced in the 1970s by the faster and more stable photodiodes and photoresistors. ROs are still used in some sound equipment, guitar amplifiers and analog synthesizers owing to their good electrical isolation, low signal distortion and ease of circuit design.
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