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15. Mutation - change of a vowel under the influence of a vowel in the following syllable. Palatal mutation (6th -7ih century, effected all Germanic languages except Gothic) fronting and rising of vowels under she influence of sounds [i, j| in the following syllable. λ o e Baddi-bedd ǽ ā→ǽ dails→dǽlon (dead) ō/ǒ → ē/ĕ motjan→metan (meet) ū/ŭ (OE new sound) → ŷ Fulljan –fylan (fill) Ēā/ĕă → īē/ĭĕ Ealdira – ieldra (elder) Ēō/ĕǒ→ īē/ĭĕ Consequences. 5) [I, j] disappeared but caused the doubling of the consonant. 2) New vowels appeared; y, īē/ĭĕ. Traces of I-Umlaut in Modem English. Irregular plural of nouns (man - men, tooth - teeth). - Irregular verbs and adjectives (told - tell, sold - sell, old - elder). 3) Word formation (long length, strong - strength, blood - Weed), New diphthongs: [Ie] —> [I] OE ex: liehtung —ME lights. [eÞ] -» [e] OE ex: heate -» herte (ME) [e۸.] —[ǽ] OE ex: east — eest (ME) 12 26. The OE noun had the grammatical categories of Number and Case which, were distinguished in an elaborate system of declensions. homonymous forms in the OE noun paradigms neutralised some of the grammatical oppositions; similar endings employed in different declensions — as well as the influence of some types upon other types — disrupted the grouping Of nouns into morphological classes, increased variation of die noun forms in the late 10th c. and especial ly in the 11th and 12th c. testifies to impending changes and to a strong tendency toward a rearrangement and simplification of the declensions. The number of variants of grammatical forms in the 11th and 12th c. was twice as high as in the preceding centuries. Among the variant forms there were direct descendants of OE forms with phonetically weakened endings and also numerous analogical forms taken over from other parts of the same paradigms and from more influential morphological classes. The new variants of grammatical forms obliterated the distinction between the forms within the paradigms and the differences between the declensions. The most numerous OE morphological classes of nouns were a-stems, o- and n-. Even m Tate OE the endings used in this types were added by analogy to other kinds of nouns, especially if they belonged to the same gender. That is how the noun declensions tended to be rearranged on the basis of gender. The decline of the OE declension system lasted over three hundred years and revealed considerable dialectal differences. It started in the North of England and gradually spread southwards. The decay of inflectional endings in the Northern dialects began as early as the 10th c. and was virtually completed in the 11th, Sirs the Midlands the process extended over the 12* c, white in the Southern dialects it lasted till the end of the 13th. on stem-suffix. Class S; suffix -j, most verbs with front vowels, derived from nouns and adj. (ex. styrian(mf), styrede(past), styred(PII)) Class 2: suffix -oja, most numerous, back vowel (locain, locoed, locod) Class 3: habban; sec3an; libban(inf), iifde(past), lifd(PIl). This class disappeared in ME {merged with Class I) Weak verbs were productive, so all borrowed verbs used weak models of form-building (ex. skate (Scandinavian) - skated, charm (French) charmed, decorate (Latin) - decorated) Some weak verbs turned into strong (rare): wear (wore-won»), ring (rangrung), hide (hid-hidden). 21. 14. 24. Palatal mutation/ I - Umlaut Historically adjective is a younger class of words as compared to noun & it has borrowed many inflections from nouns & pronouns. Declensions (unlike nouns adjectives could be declined both ways): 1. strong A-sterm, O-stemi when adjective was used attributeliy without any determined (articles, demonstrative & possesive pronouns) when used predicatevely 2. weak N-sterm when an adjective was preceded by demonstrative pronoun or genitive case Old english period N blind blind N blinde blindan G blindes blindra G blindan blindra D blindum blindum D bliindan blindum Ac blind blind Ac blinde blindan Inst blinde blindum inst blindan blindum Middle english period Blind blinde blinde blinde Some adjectives were declined always strong: call, , oper; others always weak: ilca (=some). The endings of adjectives showed agreement between noun &. adjective. There were a lot of anonimous forms -> inflections were lost & adjective became an unchangeable part of speech. Gender- first cathegory to disappear (1 r1 century) Cases 1.instrumental ease fell together with dative (end ofOE) 2. all other cases disappeared by the end of 13th century 23. The rise of the articles is English Causes: 1.loss of strong & weak declensions of adjectives - articles were employed to show definiteness & indefiniteness. 2.word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. Definite articles -> mascul, singular "se" Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral). It had 5 case declension -> in Middle English cases were lost, 13th century an > oon/one -> a/an Demonstrative Pronouns § 178. There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of NE that, which distinguished three genders in the sg and had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the prototype of this with the same subdivisions: Þes Masc, Þeos Fern., Þis Neut. and Þas pi. They were declined like adjectives according to a five-case system: Norn., Gen., Dat., Ace, and Instr. (the latter having a special form only in the Masc. and Neut. sg). 103 Vocalisation and major vowel changes in NE Vocalization of [r] (XVX-XVIII th cent) vocalized when stood after vowels, change to [ә]. Consequences: 1} Diphthongs [e ә], [iә]» [uә]: their, here, sure, 2) triphthongs [auә], [aiә]: shower, shire. 3) lengthening: arm, for. Modern Germanic languages East Germanic Gothic (4th c.) Vandalic Burgundian No living languages North Germanic Old Norse or Old Scandinavian (2nd-3rd c.) Old Icelandic (12th c.) Old Norwegian (13th c.) Old Danish (13th c.) Old Swedish (13th c.) Icelandic Norwegian Danish Swedish Faroese The verb-predicate agreed with the subject of the sentence in two grammatical categories: number and person. Its specifically verbal categories were mood and tense. Finite forms regularly distinguished between two numbers: sg and pl. The category of Person was made up of three forms: the 1st, the 2nd and the 3rd. Unlike number, person distinctions were neutralised in many positions. Person was consistently shown only in the Pres. Tense of the Ind. Mood sg. In the Past Tense sg of the Ind. Mood the forms of the 1st and 3rd p. coincided and only the 2nd p. had a distinct form. Person was not distinguished in the pi; nor was it shown in the Subj. Mood. The category of Mood was constituted by the Indicative, Imperative and Subjunctive. The category of Tense in OE consisted of two categorial forms, Pres. and Past. The tenses were formally distinguished by all the verbs in the Ind. and Subj. Moods, there being practically no instances of neutralisation of the tense opposition. Strong: seven classes with different gradation seies Weak: Three classes with different stem-suffixes Minor groups: Preterite-presents, suppletive, anomalous. The Great Vowd Shift {14-18 cc) affected all long monophthongs and all they were: -diphthongized, -narrow, -both; ME NE [i:] – [ai] Time[i]-time[ai] [e:]-[i:] Kepen [e]-keep[i:] [a:]-[ei] Maken[a:] – make [ei] [o:]-[ou] Stohe [o:]-[u] Moon [u:]-[au] Mous – mouse [au]-[o:] cause This shift was not reflected in spelling. Short vowels. [a] - [ǽ] ME NE - [o] that [Өλt] [Ө ǽt] [o] after w: was [wλs]—[woz] [u] – [λ] hut [hut] – [hλt] Old Germanic languages (with dates of the earliest records) The division into three classes depended West Germanic Anglian, Frisian, Jutish, Saxon, Franconian, High German (Alemanic, Thiiringian, Swavian, Bavarian) Old English (7th c.) Old Saxon (9th c.) Old High German (8th. c.) Old Dutch (12th c.) English German Netherlandish Afrikaans Yiddish Frisian 25. Some strong verbs turned into weak. NE - only 70 out of 300 strong verbs left (ex. climb, dive, help, swallow, wash) 2. 7 classes (depending on a type of a bloud) (ex. write-wrote-written, drive-drove-drivers, put-putput). Best surviving in Mod E -1 (write - wrotewritten),3(find-found-found),6(shake-shokeshaken). inf. Past Past pi. PH sing OK writan wrat writon writen ME writen wrot writen wnten NE write wrote written Conclussion 1. an,on,en - on (ME) - -n is last in the inf. but left in PII (NE); 2. Past sing, and Past pi.=united(usually sing, form taken) . In addition to the three main sources — Greek, Latin and French, English speakers of the NE period borrowed freely from many other languages. It has been estimated that even in the 17th c. the English vocabulary contained words derived from no less than fifty foreign tongues. The main contributors to the vocabulary were Italian, Dutch, Spanish, German, Portuguese and Russian.' A number of words were adopted from languages of other countries and continents, which came into contact with English: Persian, Chinese, Hungarian, Turkish, Malayan, Polynesian, the native languages of India and America. § 586. English owes the greatest number of foreign words to Italian, though many of them, like Latin loan-words, entered the English language through French. A few early borrowings pertain to commercial and military affairs while the vast majority of words are related to art, music and literature. In the 14th c. English imported the Italian words ducato, million, florin, pistol,Examples of musical terms adopt-ed in English are: aria, bass, cello. The Italian loan-words balcony, cameo the priority of the Italians in certain spheres of culture. The loans replica, sonnet, stanza indicate new concepts in literature. Many words in general use do not differ from English words either in sounds or spelling and cannot be distinguished from native words without a special study:, cash, canteen, escort, laundry, manage,; these borrowings were probably imported at an earlier date and have lost their foreign flavour. Borrowings from Spanish came as a result of contacts with Spain in the military, commercial and political fields, due to the rivalry of England and Spain in foreign trade and colonial expansion: barricade, cannibal, cargo,. Many loan-words indicated new objects and concepts encountered in the colonies: banana, canoe, chocolate, cocoa. Borrowings from Germanic languages are of special interest as English is a Germanic language too. The influence of Scandinavian in Early ME has certainly remained unsurpassed and the unique conditions of close language contacts were never repeated. By the 15th— 16th c. the Germanic languages had driven far apart; Dutch made abundant contribution to English, particularly in the 15th and 16th c, when commercial relations between England and the Netherlands were at their peak. They specialised in wool weaving and brewing, which is reflected in the Dutch loan-words: pack, scour, spool, stripe (terms of weaving); hops, tub, scum. Extensive borrowing is found in nautical terminology: bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, freight, keel, skipper. The flourishing of art in the Netherlands accounts for some Dutch loan-words relating to art: easel, landscape, sketch. The earliest Russian loan-words entered the English language as far back as the I6th c, when the English trade company (the Moskovy Company) established the first trade relations with Russia. English borrowings adopted from the 16th till the 19th c. indicate articles of trade and specific features of life in Russia, observed by the English:, beluga, intelligentsia, muzhik, rouble, samovar, troika, tsar, vodka. The loan-words adopted after 1917 reflect the new social relations and political institutions in the USSR: bolshevik, Komsomol, Soviet. Some of the new words are translation-loans: collective farm, Five-Year-Plan, wall newspaper. 22. 32. Norn (he) = hē (she) = hēo/hīe <it> = hit (they) = hēo/hīe Middle English, cases. Genetive - turned into new class of pronouns (possesive pronouns) Dative & Accusative felt together & formed objective case (I-me) number dual forms dissapeared 3. 3rd person (he)hē - he (далее b he) (she) hēo/hīe - he (далее b she - demonstrative pronoun seo) (they)hēo/ hīe - he/hi (далее B they - Scandinavian borrowing) 2""* person OE ME NE Sing. Þu thou ēow (you) The alphabetic way of writing was originally based on a phonetic principle: it was designed to give an accurate graphic representation of pronunciation by using letters to indicate sounds. Mod E spelling displays many deviations from this principle. The reasons are to be found in the history of English sounds. OE spelling was phonetic: They attempted to use a separate letter for each distinct sound; the sound values of the letters were for the most part the same as in Latin. Their spellings, however, were not absolutely consistent, for some letters indicated two or more sounds: the letter 3 stood for four different phonemes, c — for two; f, ძ, Þ and s indicated two allophones each (which developed into phonemes later). ME spelling innovations incorporated many sound changes which had taken place since the 9th—10th c, and spelling become more ambiguous and conventional. In many instances ; the one-to-one correspondence of letter and sound had been lost. Morel letters than before had two sound values: 0 stood for o], [u], long o and [0:]; c — for [s] and [k]; g — for [g] and [dз], etc.; u could even indicate three sounds — the vowels [u] and [y] and the consonant [v]. One and the same sound was commonly shown by different means: [dз] could be indicated by g, j or dg, [k] — by k, c and q, etc. The digraphs introduced in ME look familiar to the modern reader, since many of them are still in use, but their application in ME was rather contradictory. For instance, both ou and ow were used for [u:] and [oul; double 0 stood for the open and close long [o:] and [0:] alongside 0; long [e:l and [έ:] were shown indiscriminately by ie, double e and the single letter e. The conventional principle of spelling was later reinforced by the fixation of the written form of the word in printing and by extensive sound changes. The phoneticians and spelling reformers of the 16th c. strove to restrict the freedom of variation and to improve English orthography by a more consistent use of letters and digraphs, and by the introduction of new symbols. They insisted upon a strict distinction between u and v when used to indicate a vowel and a consonant: [u] and [v], e.g. Early NE loue, selues, vnripe, unshaken later spelt as love, selves, unripe, unshaken; They introduced new digraphs to show the difference between some open and close vowels, namely the digraph ea for [έ: ] as distinguished from e, ee, and ie used for the closed [e: ], and the digraph oa alongside 0 in open syllables for [o:], as contrasted to 00 showing a long closed [0:]. The use of double consonants became less frequent, except in traditional spellings like kiss, sell, but double letters were sometimes employed to show that the preceding vowel was short/ § 415. The activities of the scholars in the period of normalisation — late 17th and the 18th c. — had a stabilising effect on the development of English spelling. The dictionaries and grammars fixed the written forms of the words as obligatory standards. only a few innovations were made: a few new digraphs were adopted with borrowed words, such as ph, ps — NE photograph, psychology, ch — NE chemistry, scheme and machine, g — genre. In the 18th c. the sound changes slowed down. Standard pronunciation (later known as RP — Received Pronunciation) and standard spelling were firmly established, PL 3ē Ye[ji:] (we) ēow Participle I - suffix -ende (ex. OE berende, ME bering. NE bearing) PII - suffix -en{strong verbs) and -t,-d (weak verbs) and commonly marked by prefix -3e. in OE: active voice (ex. segan) and passive voice (ex.seboren) PI and PII were used predicatively and attributively (like adj.) and agreed with noun in number, Gender, case. PI and PII lost number, Gender, case in ME. Inf. loss of dative case (ME) (ex. OE Nomin.: writan, Dative: to writanne; ME: to written, NE: to write, ("to” is a formal sign)) Gerund appears in the 12th century OE verbal noun with suffix —unз, -inз and PI overlapped; verbal noun later turned into Gerund and could 1) take direct object (ex. buying the book) - verbal feature; 2) preceded by article or possessive pronoun - nominal feature. 27. 28. Among the verbs of the minor groups there were several anomalous verbs with irregular forms. OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of volition and desire; it resembled the preteritepresents in meaning and function, as it indicated an attitude to an action and was often followed by an Infinitive. Cf.:Þa Se willaძ mines forsides fǽзnian 'those who wish to rejoice in my death' and hyt moten habban eall 'all could have it'. Willan had a Past tense form wolde, built like sceolde, the Past tense of the preterite-present sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal verb, like the surviving preterite-presents, and, together with sculan developed into an auxiliary (NE shall, will, should, would). Some verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE don formed a weak Past tense with a vowel interchange: and a Participle in -n: don — dyde — зe-don (NE do). OE buan 'live' had a weak Past — bude and Participle II, ending in -n, ie-bun like a strong verb. 1)their present Tense forms resembled the Past Tense forms, 2) they expressed attitude and where followed by inf. OE 12 verbs (in Mod E only 6 survived; must, may, shall, dare, can, ought to/own) Present was formed like past Tense of strong verbs (ex. sculan(inf); I sceal. You scealt, S/HE,IT sceal, pl. sculon) Pat like Past Tense of weak verbs (ex. scufan(inf); I sceolde, YOU sceoldest S/He, it sceolde, pi. sceoldon) ME changes: 1) verbal forms lost, 2) distinctions between number and mood were lost. NE Paradigm was reduced to two or even one form (ex. can-could) 44. time: Since the 9& century (Scandinavian envasion), embrased late OE & early ME number: 1.000 area: Came to E from North &. North-Easter dialects. ways: As a result of verbal communication. Assimilation: S. borrowings were easier to adopt (both E & S dialects belong to the Germanic group). semantics: Everyday life: cake, skirt, rout, window, take, fellow Military & legal matters: fleet, law, knife, husband Pronouns, they, them, there, their, both, though, same Prepositions: for Adjectives: happy, ill, weak, wrong Verbs: kill, cast, scare Recognition in Modern English: S borrowings were hard to distinguish from native words. - sk: sky, skirt, skill contributions: Some borrowings disappeared or remained only in dialects Some borrowings replaced native words: they,t. Synonims: blossom - bloom, wish - want, heaven - sky 45. OE: 43. time'. Since the 11 century < 1066 - Norman conquest. 48. Main Peculiarities of OE poetry Latin has been the most long-lasting donor of borrowings to English, because its influence started before the 5* century AD & continued up to present day. usually Latin borrowings in OE are Subdivided into 3 layers: 1. continental borrowings - words West Germanic tribes borrowed from Latin while they still lived On the continent - house-called things: cup, pillow - food; cheese, butter - animals: turtle, mull - measure unities: mile, inch, pound 2.borrowings after the Roman invasion of the British Isles (thorough Romanized Celts) - trade: - building: chalk, tile, copper - domestic life: dish, cattle - military affairs: walk, street, pale - place names: with -castra (Chester, Lancaster), with -wich (Norwich, Sandwich), with - port (Devonport) 3. borrowings after the introductory of Christianity religia: idol, angel, pope, psalm (some words came from Greek through Latin: bishop, candel, apostol) - learning: school, scholar, grammar, master - everyday vocabulary: plant, pine, cap, sock 4.translation loans: Monday = moon+day; Old Latin borrowings in OE imdenveni assimilation: 1. their spelling was changed 2.phonetic changes 3.they were used in derivation & compounding 4.they acuaried grammatical cathegories of English words Middle E After the Norman conquest the main spheres of the Latin language were church, law, academic activities, the surge of interest in classic in the age of the Renaissance led to the new way of borrowings from the Latin & Greek. Latin borrowings: — abstract consepts: anticipate, exact, espians, iact, dislocate, accomodation affixes: de- (demolish), ex- (exctracl), re- (retell rewrite), -ate (decorate), -ct (correct, perfect), -ent (apparent). number: 10.000 area: Started to penetrate from the South & spread Northwards. ways: Through oral & written speech, assimilation F borrowings were more difficult to assimilate (French — Romans language, English - Germanic language). Consequently they assymilated in some essentual features (word stress, vocalic system), semantics: Government £ administration: authority, office, nation, council Feudal system: noble, duke, countess, baron Military: army, force, battle, defeat Lug: crime, cort, jury, justice Church: abbey, clergy, bible Art/architecture: palace, chimney, colour, design Entertainment: pleasure, sport, dance, cards Adress; madam, sir, mister recognition In Modern English; F borrowings are often recognisable due to some phonetic, orthographic & word building peculiarities: - oi, oy: point, join — initual v: very, village -age; village, eaffage, laggage - c [s]: city, piece contributions: - F borrowings enlarged E vocabulary (new words) - Some F borrowings replaced E words: very, river, peace, easy - Synonims: hide - eonsil, wish - desire, smell - odour Affixes: sub-, dis-, -ment, -ish, -able 1. Old Germanic alliterative verse. 2. The Sines are not rhymed. 3. The number of the syllables to a line is free, but the number of stressed syllables is fixed. 4. Each line is divided intoo 2 halves and each half begins with one and the same sound. 5. There are at least 2 stressed syllables in a line, one in each half. 6. Metaphorical phrases. 41. 29. 33. In OE vocabulary mainly grew by means of word formation. The words Many markers of the grammatical forms of the verb were were divided into 3 main types. 1. simple words 2. derived words 3. compound words Ways of formation Word derivation (словообразование) 1. sound interchange - frequent, but never used aione (+suffixation) Sources of sound interchange: -ablaut: ride (verb) - ride (noun) -palatal mutation: noun & verb(food - feed), adjective & verb (full-fill), noun & adjective (long-length) -consonant interchange: dead - death 2. word stress - not frrequenf, it held to differentiate between parts of speech & was used together with other meanings: andswary - andswar 3. prefixalion: - indoeuropean prefixes: un - germanic prefixes: mis-, be-(begin), ofter (mod. Over) - prefixation was widely used with verbs: 3an, a- ("go away"), be- (“ go round), fore- ("precede") - grammatical prefixes:3e3an (Participle II) 4. suffixation - most productive, mostly applied to nouns & adjectives, seldom to verbs classification of suffixes: -suffixes of agent nouns: -end (friend), -ere(fiscere) -suffixes of abstract nouns: -t (sight), -nes(brightness), -ing(earning) -new suffixes derived from noun root morphemes: -dom(freedorn), hood(childhood), -ship(friendship) -adjective suffixes: -i3(hali3=holy), -ede(cooked, backed) -new suffixes derived from adjectives root morphemes: -ful(careful), -less(lifeless) Word compounding - highly productive 1. nouns -noun + noun (seaman) -syntactical compounds( forget-me-not, days+eye=daysy) -noun + adjective (mod+ceari3=sorrowful) - adjective +noun (mildheord=merciful) reduced in ME and Early NE. ME forms of the verb are represented by numerous variants, which reflect dialectal differences. Number distinctions were in the 15th c. —they were neutralized in most positions. In the 13th and 14th c. the ending -en – the main marker of the pl forms of the verb. The ending – en was missed out in the late 14th c and was dropped in the 15th, the Past tense stems of the strong verbs merged in one form. All number distinctions were thus with the exception of the 2nd and 3rd person In the Past tense of strong verbs the difference between the moods in the sg could be shown by means of a root-vowel interchange. When, in the 15th c. the two Past tense stems of the strong verbs merged, all the forms of the moods in the Past tense fell together with the exception of the verb to be, which retained a distinct form of the Subjunctive in the Past sg — were as opposed to was The main trends of their evolution in ME and NE can be defined as gradual loss of most nominal features (except syntactical functions) and growth of verbal features. The simplifying changes in the verb paradigm, and the decay of the OE inflectional system account for the first of these trends — loss of case distinctions in the infinitive and of forms of agreement in the Participles. The Late ME period witnessed the growth of a new verbal the Gerund Most verbs have adopted the way of form-building of the weak verbs: the dental suffix. The strict classification of the strong verb degenerate. In the system of strong verbs the reduction in the number of stem from four to three. Early NE PII doesn’t differ from the Past. 46. 38. There are very few Celtic loan-words in the OE vocabulary, for there must have been little intermixture between the Germanic settlers and the Celtic in Britain. Abundant borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The OE kingdoms Kent, Deira and Bernicia derive their names from the names of Celtic tribes. The name of York, the Downs and perhaps London have been traced to Celtic sources (Celtic dun meant 'hill'). Various Celtic designations of 'river' and 'water' were understood by the Germanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Exe, Esk, Usk, Avon, Evan go back to Celtic amhuin 'river', uisge 'water'; Thames, Stour, Dover also come from Celtic.. Many place-names with Celtic elements are hybrids; the Celtic component, combined with a Latin or a Germanic component, make a compound place-name; e.g. Celtic plus Latin Celtic plus Germanic Man-chester York-shire Win-chester Corn-wall1 Devon-port Devon-shire Lan-caster Canter-bury . Outside of place-names Celtic borrowings in OE were very few: no more than a dozen. Examples of common nouns are: OE binn (NE bin 'crib'), cradol (NE cradle), bratt 'cloak', dun (NE dun 'dark coloured'), dan 'hill', cross (NE cross), probably through Celtic from the L crux. A few words must have entered OE from Celtic due to the activities of Irish missionaries in spreading Christianity. In later ages some of the Celtic borrowings have died out or have-survived only in dialects. 34. Some OE adverbs are primary, that is, they have not been derived from any other part of speech, while others are secondary, derived from some other part of speech. Among the primary adverbs there are many pronominal words, such as ponne 'then'. Much more numerous are the secondary adverbs, derived from substantives or adjectives. Thus, the following adverbs originated from case forms of substantives: hwllum 'sometimes' (from the dative plural of the substantive hwll 'while'. An entire category of adverbs, those in -e, originated from the instrumental singular neuter, strong declension; the -e became a derivative suffix. Here belong such adverbs as wide 'widely', deope 'deeply'. In OE there was an adjective suffix -lic (coming from a substantive lie 'body'), a number of adjectives were derived by means of this suffix: e.g. luflic 'loving'. In some cases there existed parallel_variants of an adjective with the suffix -lic and without it. Adverbs whose meaning admits of degrees of comparison derive them by means of the same suffixes that are used as degrees of comparison of adjectives, viz., -r for the comparative, and -st for the superlative. These suffixes are preceded by the vowel -0-: Some adverbs derive their comparative without any suffix, by means of mutation of the root vowel: ME – some adverbs derived in OE from adjectives by means of the suffix –e are still in use. At the same time a new way of deriving adverbs, which had arisen in OE, by means of the suffix –ly. Degrees of comparison of adverbs were derived by the same suffixes that were used for adjectives. In ME phrases of the type more, most + adverb appear. In the MnE the suffix –ly became the ony productive adverbforming suffix. In the formation of degrees of comparison no change occurred in MnE as against ME. The noun had 4 cases: Nom, Gen, Dat, Accusative. The formal distinction of cases was less consistent than that of numbers. The Nom. can be loosely defined as the case of the active agent, for it was the case of the subject mainly used with verbs denoting activity; the Nom. could also indicate the subject characterised by a certain quality or state; could serve as a predicative and as the case of address, there being no special Vocative case The Gen. case was primarily the case of nouns and pronouns serving as attributes to other nouns. The meanings of the Gen. were very complex and can only roughly be grouped under the headings "Subjective" and "Objective" Gen. Subjective Gen. is associated with the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin Objective Gen. is associated with what is termed "partitive meaning" as in sum hund scipa 'a hundred of ships', husa selest 'best of the houses'. The use of the Gen. as an object to verbs and adjectives was not infrequent, though the verbs which regularly took a Gen. object often interchanged it with other cases Dat. was the chief case used with prepositions The Ace. case, above all, was the form that indicated a relationship to a verb. Being a direct object it denoted the recipient of an action, the result of the action and other meanings. Besides these substantival functions the oblique cases of OE nouns, especially the Ace. case, could be used in some adverbial meanings, e.g. to indicate time or distance Numerals from 1 to 3 are declined From 4 to 19 are invariable, but they are declined if they are used without a substantive. The numeral an is declined as a strong adjective. The ordinal numerals, with the exception of oÞer “second”(as a strong) are declined as weak verbs. ME cardinal numerals developed from OE: 1 – on (an), 2 – two (twa). There appeared in ME the word millioun, of Fench Origin. Ordinal numerals, with the exception of second (from French), are developed from OE . 13-19 end in –tenthe, they are derived from corresponding cardinals, 20-90 – tinthe. MnE numerals developed from ME without any particular changes, in according with phonetics laws of the period. 30, 31 In OE there were no analytical forms; they appeared in ME in all Germanic langs and consisted of two elements; 1) a*v'erb of broad semantics {to be, to have) and high frequency; 2) non-finite forms (inf., PI/II) They are Perfect Passive. Future, Cont, Do-forms The rise of Perfect forms i. habbant (transitive verb)/ beon (intransiuve verb) +PII beon in ME ceased to be used not to confuse Perfect with Passive 2. in ME also inf. and Participle acquired Perfect forms The rise of Passive forms 1. beon/werthen(died out in ME) +PII 2. Passive constructions were often used with prepositions by/with to show the doer of the action and the instrument The rise of the Future forms 1. Analytical Future Tense forms developed from OE verbs Sculan/willan"+ inf. 2. 13-14 cent. — Future Tense forms became very common "willan/scullan were completely interchangeable. 3.17lb cent. John Wales established rule - 'shall" – first person, will" - 2/3 person 4.present day tendency "witt* is used with ail persons The rise of the Continuous Forms OE "beon" +PI - denoted a quality of a lasting state of the subject ME in ME this form fell into disuse NE hi the NE there were two forms to show continuous aspect (be+PI/ be + preposition "on") In the 18* cent. Cont. forms were well established 19th cent - Cont. forms appear in Passive*, before this time such forms were considered clumsy and agrammatical. The rise of the do-forms 1. do-forms (do-periphrasis) appeared in Past and Present in Indicative Mood 2. do-forms were used in negative, affirmative and interrogative sents and freely interchanged with simple forms - without do (16-17 cent) (ex. Did you hear this/ Heard you this? don't know/ I know not; I do like ice cream/ I like ice-cream) 3. 17 cent, do-forms only in negative and interrogative sents.