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Race & Ethnic Relations: Discrimination, Prejudice, Patterns of Treatment
Race as Myth
 Many people think that humankind can be sorted into biologically distinct groups called races. This idea suggests that
there are “pure” examples of different races and that any person can belong to only one race.
 Biologists, geneticists, and social scientists reject this view of race.
 All people belong to the human species.
Race as Reality
 Racial differences become important because people believe them to be.
 “Race” is a category of people who share observable physical characteristics and whom others see as being a distinct
group.
Ethnicity
 Ethnicity is the set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes one group from another group.
 People who share a common cultural background and a common sense of identity are known as an ethnic group.
 Ethnicity is based on characteristics such as national origin, religion, language, customs, and values.
 Ethnic groups must pass cultural beliefs and practices from generation to generation.
 Ethnic identity can cross racial or national boundaries.
 Ethnicity is based on cultural traits, while race is based on physical traits.
Minority Groups
 A minority group is a group of people who—because of their physical characteristics or cultural practices—are
singled out and treated unequally.
 In this sense, the term minority has nothing to do with group size, but with the unequal standing in society in relation
to a dominant group.
 The dominant group is the group that possesses the ability to discriminate by virtue of its greater power, privilege, and
social status in a society.
 The dominant group in American society is white people with northern European ancestry.
Discrimination & Prejudice
 Discrimination is the denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership
 Can occur on an individual level or societal level
 Legal discrimination: upheld by law
 Institutionalized discrimination: outgrowth of the structure of a society
 Prejudice is an unsupported generalization about a category of people
 Stereotype: over-simplified, exaggerated, or unfavorable generalization about a group
 Self-fulfilling prophecy: a prediction resulting in behavior that fulfills the prophecy
 Racism: the belief that one’s own race is superior
Merton’s Patterns of Prejudice and Discrimination
 Active Bigot – prejudiced and openly discriminatory
 Timid Bigot – prejudiced, but is afraid to discriminate due to societal pressures
 Fair-Weather Liberal – not prejudiced, but discriminates anyway because of societal pressures
 All-Weather Liberal – not prejudiced and does not discriminate
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Sources of Discrimination & Prejudice
 Sociological:
o Prejudices are embedded in social norms
 Psychological:
o Prejudiced people have an authoritarian personality type.
o Prejudice may be the result of frustration and anger.
o Scapegoating occurs when an innocent person or group is blamed for one’s troubles.
 Economical:
o Prejudice arises out of competition for resources.
o Dominant group may encourage competition between minority groups in order to maintain its dominant
status.
Patterns of Treatment
 Cultural pluralism is a policy that allows each group within society to keep its unique cultural identity
o Switzerland is an example with three official languages.
 Assimilation is the blending of culturally distinct groups into a single group with a common culture and identity
o American idea of “melting pot”
o Can happen informally or by force
 The rights of minorities are protected by law
o The United States is an example
o Includes affirmative action laws
 Segregation is a policy that physically separates a minority group from the dominant group
o “De jure” segregation is based on laws.
o “De facto” segregation is based on custom and informal norms.
 Subjugation is a practice whereby dominance is maintained by force
o Most extreme form is slavery.
o South Africa’s system of apartheid is an example.
 Population Transfer - Separation of groups by transferring the minority population to a new territory
o “Indirect” transfer occurs when the dominant groups makes life for minorities so miserable that they leave.
o “Direct” transfer involves using force to move people to new locations.
 Extermination – Most extreme; goal is elimination
o Genocide is the goal of complete destruction of a minority group.
– Holocaust and Rwanda are examples
o Ethnic cleansing is the combination of extermination and transferal.
– Serbia and Sudan are examples
Gender: Focus on Inequality, Roles, and Behaviors
Gender Roles and Identity
What is Gender?
 Gender is the behavior and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women.
 Gender roles are the specific behaviors established by society for men and women.
 Gender identity is the awareness of being masculine or feminine as defined by society.
 Margaret Mead studied expectations across three cultures and found differences.
o Differences are seen as proof that gender is social, not biological.
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Babies are given different toys.
o Expected behavior, interests, and strengths are different for young boys and girls.
o Expectations are learned early.
Gender Roles & Social Inequality
 In most societies, gender is the primary factor used to determine a person’s social standing.
o Sociologists ask why this is.
 One widely held view is that gender inequality is related to human reproduction.
o Over time patriarchy, a system in which men are dominant over women, arose.
 Conflict perspective suggests that male control of economic and political spheres have reinforced their dominant
position.
o The idea of institutionalized discrimination is sometimes given as a reason for inequality.
 Sexism is the belief that one sex is by nature superior to the other.
o Sexism becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Gender Inequality
 Women’s Movement:
o Officially begun in 1848
o Demanded suffrage, the right to vote
o Used civil disobedience
o Resurfaced in 1970s
 Education:
o Since 1979, more women than men in college
o Women focus on education and humanities, while men focus on engineering and the professions
 Work:
o Wage gap - The level of women’s income relative to that of men
o Glass ceiling - The invisible barrier that prevents women from gaining upper-level positions
o Second shift - The work a working mother does in the home
 Politics:
o Women make up 52 percent of voting-age people, but only between 16 and 24 percent of elected offices
o Some women have been appointed to high office
Aging: Adulthood, the World of Work & the Later Years
Adulthood
Adult Male Development
 Life structures - The combination of statuses, roles, activities, goals, values, beliefs, and life circumstances that
characterize an individual
o Includes early, middle, and late adulthood
 Early Adulthood
o 17-22
o College or Job
o Transition Period
o Exploration of Opportunities
o Make commitments
 Age 30 Transition
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o 28-32
o Crucial – major life changes
o Ends the novice phase, when men prepare to enter full adulthood
Settling Down
o 33-39
o Task – Success
o Prove oneself in society – job advancement
o Separate from mentors
Midlife Transition
o 40 – 44
o Question life structures
o Escape pressure of unattainable dreams
o Become a mentor
Adult Female Development
 Similarities with Men:
o Same development; different social roles and identities
 Leaving the Family:
o Physical and psychological break from family
o Life Plan
o May value marriage over work
 Entering Adult World:
o Often a mother in 20s
o Strain from Dual roles of mother and career
o Break in employment for children can limit career
 Re-Enter Work World:
o Occurs when children are school age
o Commitment to career at same time husband is doubting his career
World of Work
The Labor Force
 Work involves performing all of the tasks necessary to produce goods and provide services that meet human needs
o The basis for the economy
 Typical individual will spend about 50 years in the labor force
o All individuals age 16 and older who are employed in paid positions or who are seeking paid employment.
o People who are not paid for their labor are part of the informal economy.
o In 2007, 66 % of U.S. population over age 16 was in the labor force.
Composition of Labor Force
 Recent decades have seen increase in number of working women
 Women hold just over half of professional jobs—high-status occupations that require specialized skills and
knowledge obtained through formal education
 Fastest growing minority group, Hispanics, are increasing in labor force, too
 Employment by Occupation:
o Management & Professional – 35%
o Service – 16%
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Sales & Office – 25%
Natural Resources, Construction, & Maintenance – 11%
Production, Transportation, and Material Operations – 12%
Unemployment
 Unemployment occurs when a person does not have a job but is actively seeking employment
 Unemployment rate is the %age of the civilian labor force that is unemployed but actively seeking employment
o Unemployment rate varies across social groups
o Five % unemployment considered acceptable in the United States
The Changing Nature of Work
 A History
o In 1900:
 35% worked in agriculture
 45% worked in manufacturing
 20% worked in professions, management, office work, and sales
o In 1950:
 Manufacturing dominated
o Today:
 13% work in agriculture and manufacturing
 76% work in professions, management, office work, and sales
o Globalization
 New technology has changed the economy.
 Many manufacturing jobs have been outsourced, or sent to countries where labor is less expensive.
Job Satisfaction
 Opinion Polls
o 42% said they were “very satisfied” with their jobs.
o 38% said they were “somewhat satisfied.”
 Factors for Dissatisfaction
o On-the-job stress
o Retirement and insurance benefits
o Salary
o Recognition
o Chances for promotion
 Factors for Satisfaction
o Interesting nature of their work
o Salary
o Working hours
o Workplace safety
o Relations with co-workers
 Job and Career Changes
o Changing jobs and/or careers is a well-established pattern in the United States
o Average worker changes companies nine times, careers five to six times
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The Later Years
Changes in Late Adulthood
 Age 65 and older: 11 percent of U.S. population in 1980; over 12 percent in 2000; projected to be 20 percent by 2030
 Gerontology is the scientific study of aging.
o Social gerontology is the study of the nonphysical aspects of aging.
 Old-old - Ages 85 and older
 Young-old - Ages 65 through 74
 Middle-old - Ages 75 through 84
 The “graying of America” is the phenomenon of an increasing percentage of Americans being 65 or older (largely
due to the baby boom generation)
Adjustment to Retirement
 Retirement involves loss of role and status associated with a particular job as well as with being a working adult.
 Some are greatly bothered by this loss; others rank it as low stress.
o Factors such as income, health, social networks, and identity affect a person’s adjustment to retirement.
o Loss of independence can have negative consequences.
Physical & Mental Functioning
 Aging involves the weakening and slowing of body processes.
o Intellectual ability declines very little.
o Alzheimer’s disease is a leading form of dementia.
 Dependency & Death
o Dependency is the shift from being an independent adult to being dependent on others for physical or
financial assistance.
o Most elderly people fear dependency, and it is known to cause stress in parent-child relationships.
New Opportunities
 Retirement is often accompanied by a feeling of freedom.
 Free time to try new things, travel, attend college, pursue activities such as crafts, golf, or gardening, or become
politically active
 Begin second or volunteer career
 Individuals who have planned for retirement have a better position to take advantage of the opportunities in this
period of life.
o Financial planning
o Broadening one’s interests
o Developing hobbies
o Taking care of one’s health
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