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COINAGE UNDER AUGUSTUS AS AN ASPECT OF AUGUSTAN CULTURE 1. Significant innovations in what appeared on the coins issued under Augustus more than justify these artistic achievements being included as an important aspect of the overall culture of the ‘Augustan Age’. 2. And Augustus fully grasped how coins could be used to ‘advertise’ this new ‘Augustan Golden Age. 3. YET there is no solid evidence that Augustus and his most intimate political associates controlled the images on the coins – which, as we’ll see, were very rich in their variety. 4. To fully appreciate what happened under Augustus, we should perhaps glance at the history of the Roman state’s coinage from the earliest issues until he came to power. A SHORT HISTORY OF ROMAN COINAGE 1. Before about 270 BC, the Roman state (as a non-maritime, inland state) made use, in common with other states in central Italy, of two forms of bronze ‘currency’: i) Aes signatum (“stamped bronze”) which took the form of quite large bars of cast, stamped bronze weighing anywhere between about 600 grams (1.3 lbs) and 2500 grams (5.5 lbs); and ii) Aes grave (“heavy bronze”) – which comprised quite heavy circular, cast discs weighing about 325 grams (11.5 oz) and which were certainly in common use in the early 200s BC. It is not totally clear in what circumstances these were used. The two sides of an aes signatum bar Ingots of aes signatum of this sort may reflect events at “the Battle of Beneventum” in 275 BC against King Pyrrhus of Epirus. Allegedly Pyrrhus’ war elephants were turned back by the squeals of Roman pigs These bronze discs (of the second kind: aes grave) belong to about 260 BC and have a bull and a depiction of Minerva Two grains of barley and an open hand Aes grave came in six denominations from one uncia to one as. The three dots indicate 3 unciae 2. Once Rome was in regular contact with the Greek states of southern Italy (from the 270s BC onwards) SILVER COINS began to be minted (copying Greek models) and became the standard form of exchange. 3. Fairly typical was a depiction of MARS and of a HORSE’S HEAD with an EAR OF GRAIN - and the designation ROMAN(ORVM) [(“coin of the) ROMANS”] 4. For a short time there was a variety of depictions: HERCULES and the SHE-WOLF SUCKLING THE TWINS MARS and a REARING HORSE a JANUS-type figure (said to be the DIOSCURI [the twins Castor and Pollux]) A four-horse chariot (a quadriga) driven by Jupiter, with a winged Victory by his side (and ROMA) 5. Then, with the introduction (about 211 BC) of the silver DENARIUS [a little smaller than a 5p coin] - which would become the basic coin of the Roman state’s currency for some 400 years - the imagery seems to have become fairly standard for decades: a) the head of a helmeted ROMA (the deity who personified Rome) on the obverse and b) the DIOSCURI (the heavenly twins Castor and Pollux) galloping on horseback on the reverse. [They had, supposedly, appeared at the Battle of Regillus (496 BC) and helped the Romans against ‘the Latin League’] 6. About the only variant was the depiction of VICTORY driving a two-horse chariot (a biga) [rather than the DIOSCURI] 7. And the only innovation was the regular appearance on coins of a) the INITIALS of one or other of the “moneyers” responsible for the coin issue; and b) the suspicion that (very rarely) a bolder “moneyer” was engaging in a little fun with some mild ‘punning’. About 160 BC the “moneyer” Furius Purpurio has not only put an abbreviation of his last name PVR (now standard practice) on his coin issue but also has snuck in a murex shell from which Romans got their purple dye, their purpura. murex shell PVR 8.a) From around 150 BC more adventurous “moneyers” began to depict legends from Rome’s supposed past; and b) to make reference more and more to the achievements of their own remote and immediate ancestors. In 58 BC (for example) the “moneyer” Marcus Aemilius Lepidus has the head of a VESTAL VIRGIN and records his family’s construction of “the Basilica Aemilia” in the Roman Forum in 179 BC (with renovations by more recent family members) In 58 BC the same moneyer M. Aemilius Lepidus and his colleague Pub. Plautius Hypsaeus record family achievements 1) The submission of KING (REX) ARETAS, of the desert kingdom of the Nabataeans, to M. Aemilius Scaurus. 2) The capture of PRIVERNUM, a centre of the Volsci, by an ancestor of Publius Hypsaeus By the early 40s BC JULIUS CAESAR’s achievements in Gaul are being referred to on the state’s coinage which is becoming a medium for recording “news” 48-47 BC The head of PIETAS (Piety/Duty) GALLIC ARMS CAESAR THEN came the greatest innovation of all - JULIUS CAESAR allowed his own head to appear on the coinage, the first living Roman so to appear. BUT it was not until January 44 BC – two months before his assassination – that this happened. [JUNO SOSPITA with spear and shield in a chariot appears on the other side of the coin] A denarius of Lucius Aemilius Buca also of 44 BC depicting CAESAR as IMPERATOR (“military commander”) and VENUS the ancestor of the Julian gens After Caesar set the precedent, leading Romans began to have their heads put on coin issues. In 42 BC (two years after the assassination) Marcus Junius BRUTUS is celebrated as IMP(ERATOR) BRVT(VS) with the wording “the Ides of March” (EID. MAR) and with daggers and a ‘cap of liberty’ - by the moneyer L(ucius) Plaet(orius) Cest(ianus) In light of the precedents set it would be strange if Octavian did NOT start putting his head on coinage too. 43 BC the heads of the deceased Julius CAESAR (still referred to as “dictator perpetuus” and “Pontifex Maximus”) and OCTAVIAN who is now called “CAESAR”. He is “consul” [COS], a pontiff (priest) [PONT] and an augur [AVG]. - Once OCTAVIAN formed the “Second” Triumvirate with MARCUS ANTONIUS (and LEPIDUS), he and Marcus Antonius both begin to appear (usually together) on coin issues [as do Marcus Antonius and Lepidus]: Marcus Antonius and Octavian are described as IIIVIRI REI PVBLICAE CONSTITVENDAE (‘Members of the Commission of Three for the Reorganization of the State’) SOME COINS FROM THE PERIOD OF THE TRIUMVIRATE 1. Although it would be during Augustus’ long 40-year ‘reign’ that the full ‘public relations’ value of the coinage as a medium for spreading news came into its own, it was not lost on ‘the Triumvirs’. 2. And so coins issued before the eventual defeat of Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra in September 31 BC quite often (understandably) talk of military victories, although there are other themes. Octavian depicted as Neptune - recording the naval victory of 36 BC over the son of Pompey, Sextus Pompeius who was causing difficulties from THE COINAGE OF AUGUSTUS’ “REIGN” 1. Given that OCTAVIAN was at the helm of state for another forty years after he became “Augustus”, it is not surprising that the variety of coin issues is immense. 2. We can look at only a sample - best approached, perhaps, by general category. 3. There were coins that a) recorded things ‘political’ – principally honours bestowed on Augustus himself; b) recorded military achievements; c) reflected some of the building activity, often connected with the religion and the construction of temples and shrines; and d) There were coin issues which seem to be purely artistic. 4. The ones in this last category, although (with rare exceptions) they always have the head of Augustus, do not seem to convey any particular message - unless we, today, do not have the key to interpret their meaning. 5. a) And it is the variety of coins in this last category that lends credence to the argument that the “moneyers” under Augustus had almost total free rein to express themselves artistically and that the themes they chose were not dictated by the new administration which Augustus represented. b) If so, the Augustan period is “transitional” – from the types issued before the civil wars to those after Augustus. COINS RECORDING VARIOUS HONOURS Res Gestae 34: “I was called Augustus by decree of the Senate; the doorposts of my house were decorated with laurel and over my door was fixed a civic wreath.” “for saving citizens” The civic wreath (corona civica) Res Gestae 34 “The doorposts of my house were decorated with laurel…” “In the senate house was placed the golden shield, which the Senate and the Roman People gave me for my valour, my clemency, my justice, my ‘piety’”. The golden shield CL.V (clipeus virtutis) Note the laurel branches too LEGES ET IURA P(OPULO) R(OMANO) RESTITUIT “He restored laws and rights to the Roman People” COINS RECORDING MILITARY AND RELATED ACHIEVEMENTS 1. With the defeat of CLEOPATRA, Egypt became a new territory of the empire. 2. “Egypt has been captured” the coinage declared and the CROCODILE comes to symbolize that new “province”. 1. a) The Roman state had lost legionary standards to the Parthians on more than one occasion - especially under CRASSUS in 52 BC and under MARCUS ANTONIUS. b) The public had long demanded restitution; and c) Augustus had a great diplomatic success in 20 BC when, after a show of force, the Parthians agreed to hand them back. d) Coin issues proclaimed this success. SIGNIS RECEPTIS (“THE STANDARDS WERE RECEIVED BACK”) 2. In 18 BC the “moneyer” Publius Petronius Turpilianus decided to record the same event, with a kneeling Parthian offering up a standard. 3. The freedom the “moneyers” still enjoyed is suggested by the absence of the head of Augustus and the inclusion instead of the deity FERONIA. SUCCESSES AGAINST GERMAN TRIBES WERE CELEBRATED A German hands over a small child as a hostage A kneeling German surrenders his military flag Two soldiers (possibly Augustus’ stepsons Tiberius and Drusus) offer palms to Augustus, likely after the successful incorporation of the Alpine passes and Switzerland into the empire ARMENIA HAS BEEN CAPTURED [hyberbole at its best] Augustus’ negotiations with the Parthians saw an agreement that the KINGDOM OF ARMENIA would be a neutral ‘buffer state’ between them. This was presented to the Roman public a little differently. THE CELEBRATION OF BUILDINGS AND OF RELIGIOUS MATTERS The new Curia Iulia (Senate House) dedicated by Augustus The Temple of Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger) The Temple of IUPPITER TONANS (“Jupiter the Thunderer”) dedicated by Augustus in fulfilment of a pledge after he had narrowly escaped being struck by lightning during a thunderstorm in northern Spain [The building is otherwise unknown] APOLLO of ACTIUM Augustus on a platform handing out incense to two citizens on the occasion of the “Centennial Games” (the LVDI SAECVLARES) in 17 BC as the culmination of his religious programme CELESTIAL REFERENCES CAPRICORN holding a globe and a rudder with a horn of plenty – a coin issue that remains a puzzle since “Capricorn” was not Augustus’ sign. A COMET WITH THE WORDING “THE DEIFIED JULIUS A commemorative coin of 18 BC: Julius Caesar had been deified on 1st January 42 BC COINS WHICH APPEAR TO BE PURELY ARTISTIC L. Aquillius Florus III vir moneyer may be punning, given the Latin for “flower” is flos, floris). If he is, this harks back to a practice under ‘The Republic’ and, again, shows the considerable freedom the moneyers had under (The The moneyer seems to have chosen to record the growing prosperity of the times, especially in agriculture A denarius of the moneyer (III VIR) M. Durmius ca 18 BC The lion bringing down the stag does not seem to have any special message Augustus was hailed “Imperator” for the 12th time in 10 BC The previous depiction but on an aureus A LYRE The moneyers continue to put their own names on their coin issues and seem simply to have wanted to create something artistic Marcus Durmius is the moneyer [III VIR] A CRAB HOLDING A MOTH Much ink has been used trying to explain the symbolism of what is as likely to be a purely artistic representation