* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download PSYC 100 Chapter 16
Survey
Document related concepts
Interpersonal attraction wikipedia , lookup
James M. Honeycutt wikipedia , lookup
Relational aggression wikipedia , lookup
Belongingness wikipedia , lookup
Social loafing wikipedia , lookup
Communication in small groups wikipedia , lookup
Attitude (psychology) wikipedia , lookup
Social dilemma wikipedia , lookup
Self-categorization theory wikipedia , lookup
Attribution bias wikipedia , lookup
Albert Bandura wikipedia , lookup
Group dynamics wikipedia , lookup
Attitude change wikipedia , lookup
False consensus effect wikipedia , lookup
Social tuning wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
Chaffee Winter 2013 CHAPTER 16 Social Psychology INTRODUCTION How do you describe the driver’s behavior? What if the adjacent white car or red car belonged to you? Chaffee Winter 2013 Please watch this short clip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=boHgUJn2gK8 INTRODUCTION When considering acts of terrorism, genocide, and war, there are some important issues that can be addressed: What drives some individuals to destroy the lives of thousands of people? What motivates the heroic acts of other individuals to risk death to save others? Or to generously reach out with time, money, food, resources, for those coping with loss? Chaffee Winter 2013 Social psychology is the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. INTRODUCTION 1. 2. 3. Social Thinking Social Influence Social Relations Chaffee Winter 2013 Our social behavior arises from our social cognition: The way we think about social situations. SOCIAL THINKING How do we understand and explain the behavior of other people? theory is the idea that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either to the situation or the person’s disposition. E.g. A teacher may wonder whether a student’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality (dispositional attribution) or a reaction to stress in their life (situational attribution). Chaffee Winter 2013 Attribution SOCIAL THINKING CONTINUED Fundamental E.g. Napolitan & Goethals (1979) Chaffee Winter 2013 attribution error: the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR Chaffee Winter 2013 When explaining others’ behavior, particularly the behavior of strangers we have only observed in one type of situation, we often commit the fundamental attribution error: we disregard the situation and leap to unwarranted conclusions about their personality traits. FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR Attribution do you explain poverty or unemployment? Researchers in Britain, India, Australia and the U.S. find that political conservatives tend to attribute such problems to the dispositions of the poor and unemployed themselves. Political liberals are more likely to blame past and present situations. Attributions and consequences Chaffee Winter 2013 How and relationships ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS Attitudes are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events If we believe someone is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act unfriendly The influence of attitudes on behavior helps us to understand persuasion. Chaffee Winter 2013 Does what we think affect what we do? Or does what we do affect what we think? ATTITUDES INFLUENCE ACTIONS Central Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond favorably. Occurs mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue. Durable and lasting influence on behavior. Peripheral route to persuasion: Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness. This is the route of snap judgments. Chaffee Winter 2013 route to persuasion: ACTIONS AFFECT ATTITUDES Not only do attitudes influence behavior, but in some instances, attitudes follow behavior foot-in-the-door phenomenon is the tendency for people who have first agreed with a small request to comply later with a larger request. Examples: U.S. soldiers imprisoned by Chinese communists during the Korean War Freedman & Fraser (1966): Be a Safe Driver signs, read about this study, page 677 Chaffee Winter 2013 The ROLE-PLAYING AFFECT ATTITUDES Role-playing affects attitudes as well: when you adopt a new role, you strive to follow the social prescriptions. Chaffee Winter 2013 A role is a set of explanations or norms about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. ACTIONS AFFECT ATTITUDES Abu Prison Guard experiment (1972) Ghraib, page 678. Zimbardo’s Ted Talk: The Psychology of Evil http://www.ted.com/talks/ philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil.html Warning: This video contains graphic images of violence. Chaffee Winter 2013 Zimbardo’s COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Why do our attitudes and actions interact so strongly? they do not align, we experience tension. Cognitive dissonance theory: the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. Chaffee Winter 2013 When COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Cognitive For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. Examples of cognitive dissonance. Changing our behavior can change how we think about others and how we feel about ourselves. Chaffee Winter 2013 dissonance theory RECAP Our social behavior arises from our social cognition error theory and fundamental attribution Attitudes Central route to persuasion Peripheral route to persuasion Actions affect attitudes Foot-in-the-door Role-playing affects attitudes Cognitive dissonance Chaffee Winter 2013 Attribution IMAGINE YOURSELF AS A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT… 1. 3. Chaffee Winter 2013 2. You volunteer to participate in a study examining memory. Enter the research setting, speak with a man in a white coat regarding the study and sign your paperwork. You meet another participant in the study – you will be the “teacher” and the other participant the “learner” Both participants get a sample 45 volt shock from this apparatus: EXPERIMENT BEGINS: As the teacher, you will read some phrases to the learner in the other room, and they will repeat them back to you. When the learner makes a mistake, you administer a shock from the apparatus. With each mistake, stronger shock. How far would you go? What if the man in the lab coat told you to go on? SOCIAL INFLUENCE and Obedience Group Influence The Power of Individuals Chaffee Winter 2013 Conformity SOCIAL INFLUENCE What Behavior is contagious. Examples page 532 Chameleon effect – unconsciously mimicking others Automatic mimicry assists in empathy Suggestibility and violence. Group pressure and conformity. Chaffee Winter 2013 do experiments on conformity and compliance reveal about the power of social influence? GROUP PRESSURE AND CONFORMITY Conformity: adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard Asch (1955) conformity experiment Read about this study, page 681 GROUP PRESSURE AND CONFORMITY Conditions One is made to feel incompetent of insecure The group has at least three people The group is unanimous One admires the group’s status and attractiveness One has made no prior commitment to any response Others in the group observe one’s behavior One’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards Chaffee Winter 2013 that strengthen conformity: GROUP PRESSURE AND CONFORMITY Reasons for conforming: Normative social influence: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval Informative social influence: influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality Chaffee Winter 2013 OBEDIENCE Stanley Milgram, a student of Asch, completed nearly 20 experiments examining obedience. Milgram’s studies examined a participants’ willingness to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their conscience. MILGRAM’S OBEDIENCE STUDIES Factors Person giving the orders was nearby and perceived as a legitimate authority. Authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution. Victim was depersonalized or at a distance. There were no role models for defiance. By manipulating these factors, repetitions of the original study gained compliance up to 93%. Examples of obedience in the holocaust, page 685. Chaffee Winter 2013 that increased obedience. LESSONS FROM CONFORMITY AND OBEDIENCE STUDIES Ordinary people can be corrupted by an evil situation. How does the information on conformity and obedience tie in with the work of Dan Ariely?? Watch this Ted Talk http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/ dan_ariely_on_our_buggy_moral_code.html Chaffee Winter 2013 “The most fundamental lesson of our study is that ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process” Milgram, 1974 GROUP INFLUENCE Does the presence of others improve performance? Social facilitation Simple versus difficult tasks How is performance affected when tasks are completed as a group? Social loafing Abandoning normal restraints to the power of a group: Deindividuation mob rule EFFECTS OF GROUP INTERACTION Interacting with others can have good and bad effects. Groups prevailing tendencies are enhanced over time. Group polarization is the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations, presumably through discussion within the group. This effect can have benefits and consequences Ideological separation + deliberation = polarization between groups. E.g. political attitudes in college E.g. gender development E.g. internet communication Chaffee Winter 2013 EFFECTS OF GROUP INTERACTION Janis Groupthink: Occurs when the desire for harmony in a decisionmaking group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Groupthink can also contribute to collective good decisions. Chaffee Winter 2013 (1982) studied the decision-making procedures that lead to Kennedy’s Bay of Pigs fiasco. RECAP Conformity Individual tasks: social facilitation Group tasks: social loafing, deindividuation Group interaction: Group polarization Group Think Chaffee Winter 2013 and Asch’s study Obedience and Milgram’s study Group influence RECAP What did we learn from the work of Asch, Milgram, and Zimbardo? Match the term with the definition: 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Social Loafing Deindividuation Attitudes Cognitive dissonance theory Roles Foot-in-the-door phenomenon Fundamental Attribution Error A. B. C. D. E. F. G. Tendency for people who have first agreed with a small request to comply later with a larger request. Set of explanations or norms about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. tendency for people in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster anonymity Tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. Theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. Chaffee Winter 2013 1. SOCIAL RELATIONS How 2. 3. 4. 5. Prejudice Aggression Attraction Altruism Peacemaking Chaffee Winter 2013 1. do we relate to one another? PREJUDICE Prejudice: an unjustifiable, and usually negative, attitude toward a group and its members Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory actions Stereotypes: generalized belief about a group of people Discrimination: unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members Close-up The on automatic prejudice, page 543. roots of prejudice: social, emotional, cognitive. Chaffee Winter 2013 SOCIAL ROOTS OF PREJUDICE Social inequalities: Ingroup and Outgroup: we reserve our most intense dislike for outgroup rivals most like us. Examples include the Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland, the Iraqi Sunni and Shia, the Rwandan Hutu and Tutsi, and the fans for our rival sports team. Ingroup bias: the tendency to favor our own group Chaffee Winter 2013 People blame-the-victims, such as in poverty, rather than seeking to understand the social situation. These inequalities are used to justify continued discrimination. EMOTIONAL ROOTS OF PREJUDICE Prejudice is exceptionally dangerous and angry in times of emotional trauma, such as post 9/11. theory: the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. Prejudice levels are high in economically frustrated people. Negative stereotypes blossom when people are scared or outraged. Chaffee Winter 2013 Scapegoat COGNITIVE ROOTS OF PREJUDICE Categorization is used to simplify the world. Just world phenomenon Vivid cases: vivid and violent cases are readily available to our memory and therefore influence our judgments of a group. E.g. Post 9/11, many people stereotyped Muslims as terror prone Chaffee Winter 2013 Often overestimate the similarity within other groups. Other-race effect: the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races (outgroup homogeneity effect) AGGRESSION Aggression is any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy the field of psychology, the term is more precise. Aggression emerges from biology and experience. Chaffee Winter 2013 In BIOLOGICAL FACTORS influences: animals can be bred for aggressiveness. Neural influences: Amygdala Prefrontal cortex Death row inmates and undiagnosed head trauma Underactive PFC in violent criminals Biochemical influences: Testosterone and female hyenas Low serotonin and high levels testosterone Alcohol Chaffee Winter 2013 Genetic PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL-CULTURAL FACTORS IN AGGRESSION Aversive Major league baseball pitchers are most likely to hit batters when frustrated by the previous batter hitting a home run Chaffee Winter 2013 events influence aggression Frustration-aggression principle: frustration, the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal, creates anger, which can generate aggression SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON AGGRESSION Learning: Rejection-induced aggression and bullying Ostracism Economic disparity influences crime rates: relative deprivation Chaffee Winter 2013 rewards and punishment shape behavior. Rejection intensifies aggression. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON AGGRESSION Observing models of aggression: Models for children today? Chaffee Winter 2013 THE PSYCHOLOGY ATTRACTION What factors predict friendship, attraction, chemistry? 2. Chaffee Winter 2013 Proximity Physical attractiveness 3. Similarity 1. THE PSYCHOLOGY ATTRACTION Physical In movies, the morally superior character is most often attractive. However, people’s attractiveness is surprisingly unrelated to self-esteem and happiness Averaged faces are rated more attractive in research settings. Similarity: we like people who are like us and who like us (reward theory of attraction) Chaffee Winter 2013 attractiveness has been repeatedly confirmed as the determination of first impressions. ROMANTIC LOVE Elaine Hatfield distinguishes temporary passionate love from more enduring companionate love love is an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of the relationship Emotions are influenced by physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal Companionate love is the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined Equity Self-disclosure Chaffee Winter 2013 Passionate ALTRUISM However, it is important to consider circumstances when we do not help others: Kitty Genovese Bystander effect, sometimes called diffusion of social responsibility, is the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if others are present Bystander effect on King County Metro Bus Chaffee Winter 2013 Altruism is unselfish regard for the welfare of others Altruistic individuals make this world a better place. ALTRUISM Factors for helping: why do we help? Social exchange theory Reciprocity norm Social responsibility norm Chaffee Winter 2013 Person appears to need and deserve help, person is similar to us, we have just observed someone being helpful, we are not in a hurry, we are in a small town or rural area, we feel guilty, we are not preoccupied, we are in a good mood. Norms influencing altruism? CONFLICT AND PEACEMAKING What Conflict is the perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas Social trap: a situation in which conflicted parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior Chaffee Winter 2013 in the human mind causes destructive conflict? How might the perceived threats of social diversity be replaced by a spirit of cooperation? PROMOTING PEACE How Contact, cooperation, communication, conciliation Chaffee Winter 2013 can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace? CHAPTER 16 RECAP Social Thinking: Social Influence Describe cognitive dissonance and give an example. Be able to describe conformity and obedience, including the work of Asch and Milgram, as well as the lessons from these studies. Describe the effects of group interaction, including performance when being observed and performance as a group. Social Relations Define prejudice, as well as the cognitive, emotional and social roots for prejudice. Define aggression and attraction, including the factors contributing to each. What is altruism? Why do we choose to help or not help in a situation? Define conflict and the ways we can promote peace. Chaffee Winter 2013 Describe attribution theory and the fundamental attribution error. Distinguish the central and peripheral routes to persuasion. How do attitudes influence behavior? Describe foot-in-the-door and roles. Describe the ways roles affect attitudes. Take-home message from Philip Zimbardo Ted Talk OR his famous Stanford Prison Experiment.