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Chapter 6: The Roman Empire The Age of Augustus (31 BC - AD14) 27 BC – Octavian proclaimed his victories against Antony had restored the Republic Knowing that the republic could not be restored to its old form, he worked to find a compromise – The senate gave him the title of “Augustus” - the revered one – He preferred “princeps” – first among equals The system he established is sometimes called a principate – A constitutional monarch as co-ruler w/ the senate The title of princeps itself held no power – Until 23 BC, Augustus also held the consulship, giving him imperium – After 23 BC, he gave up the consulship and was granted maius imperium “greater imperium than all others” – Also given the power of a tribune without actually holding the office – Able to propose legislation and also veto any item of public business Officials continued to be elected, but since Augustus held more authority – Caused involvement in elections to decline and eventually the popular assemblies cease to have any real authority The Army Peace in the empire & security of the princeps depended on the army Primarily responsible guarding the frontiers & maintain domestic order in the provinces The standing army was 28 legions – A legion consisted of 5400 soldiers (150,000 total troops) – Not large by modern terms or for the size of the empire (50 million total pop.) Legionaries served 20 years, recruited only from the citizenry and (under Augustus) mainly from Italy Auxiliares numbered 130,000; noncitizens; served 24 year terms; they and their families received citizenship after they finished The Praetorian Guard roughly 9000 elite soldiers Tasked w/ protecting the princeps Recruited from Italian citizens & served 16 yr tours Would become important in making & deposing emperors Victorious generals were hailed as imperator (emperor) – although we refer to Augustus as emperor, it didn’t become common for a Roman ruler until Vespasian (69-79) Provinces and Frontiers Under Augustus, provincial governors received a regular salary, so corruption was not as big a problem Since governors had few assistants, the policy of working with local elite and a degree of self-government by locals became policy By 15 BC, Augustus began looking to expand north – 9 BC – reached the Elbe River in eastern Germany – AD 9 – General Varus lost 3 entire legions after a massacre led by Arminius (a German tribal leader, despite being a Roman scout and citizen) – Defeat muted Augustus’s desire to advance in central Europe Roman historians blame Varus completely for the defeat Augustan Society The Social Order Augustus adopted a senatorial order as a ruling class – Must own 1 million sesterces in property to belong to the senatorial class – Reduced the senate from 1000 to 600, but added new families from across Italy Equestrian order expanded – Opened up to all Roman citizens in good standing & possessing 400,000 sesterces in property – Could hold military & political offices but less important than positions of senatorial class – At the end of their career, could be awarded membership in senatorial class Citizens not of either class belonged to the lower class – Majority of population – Lost most political power, given free grain & public spectacles to keep them from causing problems Augustus’ Reforms Created an imperial cult to strengthen the tie between religion and the state – – – – Never claimed to be a god Allowed the veneration of Julius Caesar as a deity Allowed the building of temples to Augustus and Roma Deified following his death in A.D. 14 Augustus believed that Roman morals had been corrupted during the late republic – Created social legislation to slow/halt decline – Luxury had undermined roman morality – easy divorce, declining birthrate in upper class, hedonistic behavior Made divorce near impossible, limits on banquet expenses, adultery became a crime, tax laws penalized the unmarried and small families – Exiled his own daughter for adultery Golden Age of Latin Literature Augustan literature is considered the peak of Latin literature Augustus patronized the greatest writers in the empire to exemplify the qualities of duty, piety & faithfulness Virgil (70 – 19 BC) greatest of all Roman poets greatest work – Aeneid (epic poem about the founding of Rome) other poems: – Georgics (about farming life) – Eclogues (a series of stories told by a group of shepherds talking to each other) Horace (65 BC – 8 BC??) best known for his Odes (4 books of poems about various subjects concerning Roman society) – sexual immorality, greed, laziness, & job dissatisfaction – Odes I, 11 – “carpe diem” Also wrote a collection of short stories called Satires – Attacked movements in society, not people individually – (contains one story called “Town Mouse, Country Mouse”) Ovid (43 BC - AD 14) Part of the privileged upper class, ridiculed Augustus’s morality policies supported by Augustus until he wrote Art of Love – a collection of lewd & explicit stories Refused to heed Augustus’s wishes, implicated in the same scandal that caused the emperor’s daughter to be exiled from Rome died in exile in a small town on the coast of the Black Sea Livy (59 BC – AD 17) Most famous prose work of the golden age Celebrated Rome’s greatness Masterpiece was a history of Rome from foundation to 9 BC – 142 total books, only 35 have survived Not overly concerned w/ accuracy of his stories but was a fine story teller Despite flaws, his work remained the standard for Roman history for generations The Early Empire (14-180) No real opposition to Augustus’s choice of successor, Tiberius – Established the Julio-Claudian dynasty Tiberius (14-37) – Augustus’s stepson – Competent general, able administrator, tried to get Senate involved Caligula (37-41) – Great-grandson of Augustus – Tyrannical, erratic, perverse, insane by most accounts – Killed by his Praetorian guard Claudius (41-54) – Great-nephew of Augustus – Physically disabled but well educated & competent ruler Nero (54-68) – Spoiled, neglectful of the military – Eliminated anything/body that stood in his way Dynasty fell during the reign of Nero Became emperor at 16, advised by his tutor, Seneca Soon became interested in anything but ruling (acting, violin playing, singing, horse racing, other more “Caligula-like” activities) Gained the animosity of the senate and Roman people by eliminating several prominent figures – a popular general, his mother, political “thorns”, had Seneca kill himself to test his convictions – believed to have had an entire series of city blocks burned to expand his palace 68 - His guards abandoned him during a revolt; without protection, Nero chose to stab himself in the throat – “What an artist the world is losing in me.” The Flavians (69-96) Civil war broke out following the revolt in 68. – Galba replaced Nero, but was defeated by Otho, then Vitellius and finally Vespasian took control – know as the Year of the Four Emperors – The Flavians dropped the title of princeps and used imperator Vespasian’s (69-79) ascension proved that an emperor could be chosen outside of Rome and did not have to be descended from Julius Caesar – Reformed the economy after Nero’s extravagance and the civil wars of 6869 – Followed by his sons, Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96) The Five Good Emperors (96-180) The benefits of the Pax Romana were most evident during the rule of the “five good emperors” – Absolute monarchs, but known for tolerance & diplomacy Nerva (96-98) - chosen by the Senate to succeed Domitian – Old when he become emperor, adopted Trajan to have an heir Marcus Ulpius Nerva Trajan (98-117) was succeeded by his 2nd cousin, Hardian – Hadrian traveled extensively, also known as a great builder (Hadrian’s Wall, the Parthenon) Hardian adopted Antoninus Pius (138-161) – Considered the most productive of the five – Chose to stay close to Rome and made great use of the Senate – Agiain, w/o an heir, Pius adopted Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius (161-180) – Considered by many to be a philospher-king like Plato spoke of – Stoic author of Meditations – about the stoic ideal as a religious concept Frontiers and Provinces At its height in 2nd cent. AD, the Roman Empire covered 3.5 million sq. mi and had a pop. of over 50 million While imperial administration provided a degree of unity, local customs were given a great deal of leeway – 212 – Caracalla granted all free inhabitants citizenship – Latin was the language of the West, Greek in the East – Local languages still existed, many inhabitants spoke neither Latin nor Greek Augustus had advised against future expansion & most 1st cent emperors followed his example – 54 BC - Claudius annexed Britain – Trajan broke w/ the policy; annexing Dacia (Romania), Mesopotamia, & Sinai peninsula – Hadrian withdrew from Mesopotamia and began fortifying the frontier – The glaring weakness of the empire was apparent: no strategic reserve – If revolt broke, out troops had to be moved from one frontier to another Role of the Army AD 14 – 25 legions; 30 by 117 By 200 - 400,000 total troops (standing & auxiliary) Legionaries had to be citizens, so Augustus’ army was primarily Italian – By AD 100, the Italian reluctance to serve in the army led to recruitment in the provinces – By this time, only 1 In 5 soldiers were Italian Military camps became centers of cultural diffusion in the provinces – Spread the Latin language & Roman institutions to the conquered – Presence of large # of troops and their women & slaves encouraged the development of trade in those regions – Cities grew up around the camps or nearby colonies Local officials chosen from the upper-class – No pay, but conferred citizenship on officials & tied them to the Rome – Led to a distinct change in the Senate – 50 – few non-Italian senators; 200 – less than ½ of senators Italian The Silver Age of Latin Literature Literature from the 150 yrs following the reign of Augustus is referred to the “silver” age – good but not equal to the “golden” age Seneca (4 BC-AD 65) – Stoic philosopher, tutor to Nero & advisor early in Nero’s reign – Considered the greatest Roman stoic, but didn’t always live according to his words – Ordered by Nero to take his own life to test his commitment Tacitus (56-120) – greatest historian of the silver age – author of Annals and Histories – felt it was his duty to display the corruption & decadence of Rome’s upper class Juvenal (55-128) – Considered the best poet of the silver age – Satirist, attacked the fickleness of Roman women, abuse of slaves, excess of emperors, immigration, his own poverty & inequality in society Imperial Rome Largest city in the empire (close to 1 million by 32 BC) – Nationalities from all over the empire, often with entire neighborhoods inhabited by specific groups Overcrowded & noisy, wagon traffic was banned during the day Crime was an issue especially in the poorer neighborhoods Rich lived in comfortable villas, poor lived in apartment blocks called insulae – Made of concrete w/ wooden walls; prone to collapse and fire Many great public buildings (temples, baths, amphitheatres, govt. buildings) Rome was also a great parasite – 200,000 poor received free grain (6 million sacks/year) – Had to import food from all over the empire – Aqueducts carried water from many miles away to supply the city The Gladiatorial Spectacles In addition to food, entertainment was provided by prominent figures – Political in purpose: kept the “mob” distracted from how miserable their lives were – 3 main types: chariot races, plays, & gladiatorial matches – Spectacles were focused around Roman religious festivals – Over 100 state holidays in the Roman calendar Many sporting events were held in large amphitheaters. Most famous was the gladiatorial matches – In provinces & during some periods in Rome fights were to the death earliest discovered amphitheater was in Pompeii (75 BC) – best known of all amphitheaters was the Colosseum in Rome – It held 50,000 spectators (roughly the size of larger sports arenas today) – Largest amphitheater was Circus Maximus (held about 200,000 spectators) Roman society was violent and brutal & thus was their entertainment Gladiators were trained fighters, usually slaves or criminals – Games were from dawn to dusk – Some free men fought in hope of fame & fortune – Most were one on one, refereed & scripted – Some events might involve unarmed criminals and wild animals Disaster in Southern Italy 79 – Mt. Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii in volcanic ash and Herculaneum in mudslides – Providing modern archeologists with insight as to the daily lives of Romans from this period Roman Law Cornerstones of modern legal principals come from this time period – Concept of natural rights, Innocent until proven guilty, defendant’s right to defend themselves in court, judges expected to weigh evidence before judging Political & Military Woes Commodus’ assassination led to a period of civil war – Replaced by Septimus Severus (193-211) Severan dynasty created a military monarchy – Army expanded, pay increased & officers promoted to important govt. positions The Late Roman Empire (p.166Reforms of Diocletian & Constantine Diocletian restructured the empire – – – – – # of provinces increased by over 100 Provinces grouped into 12 dioceses Dioceses grouped into 4 prefectures, each w/ a governor The empire was split into halves: West (Roman) & East (Byzantine) Each prefecture ruled by an “Augustus” or “Caesar” but Diocletian retained control Diocletian had decided that Rome was too big to be run by one person – tetrarchy – rule of four – Each half ruled by an Augustus; assisted by the Caesar or viceemperor 312 – Constantine took control of the west; 324 – defeated fellow emperor, Licinius, and assumed total control Between 324-330, Constantine moved the capital from Rome to the eastern city of Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople 312 – Constantine converted to Christianity 313 – Edict of Milan – legalized Christian worship – Theodosius adopted Christianity as the official religion 378 – Visigoth revolt routs a Roman army 402 – western capital moved to Ravenna 410 – Visigoths sack Rome – Also, all Roman legions are pulled out of Britain 455 – Rome breaks a treaty with the Vandals; Alaric orders the sack of Rome 476 – Master of the Soldiers, Odacer, deposes the emperor, Romulus Augustulus – Considered by historians as the fall of the western (Roman) empire – Eastern empire (Byzantine) would continue on until 1453