Download Most Missed Topics for Final Exam

Most Missed Topics
for Final Exam
Psychology 100
Winter 2008
Read This!
Here are some guidelines for the ten most
missed questions from midterm two. These topics will
appear again on the final exam. The same questions will
not be asked, but the topics will be revisited.
Also, please beware that not every topic from the most
missed is necessarily on here. These are just basic
guidelines.
Enjoy and happy studying! Anne
E-mail: [email protected]
Approaches to Intelligence
Intelligence (Ch. 10)
Approach
Definition
Examples
Psychometric
Emphasizes products of
intelligence, especially scores on
intelligence tests (i.e. higher the
IQ score equals higher
intelligence)
Spearman
g: general intelligence
S: specific intelligence
Thurstone
7 Primary mental abilities
Catell
Fluid: basic reasoning and problem
solving abilities
Crystallized intelligence: specific
knowledge gained through experience
Information
Processing
Examines mental operations
(process) involved in intelligent
behavior (i.e., attention and memory)
The speed of basic processes and the
amount of attentional resources
available make significant contributions
to performance on IQ tests.
Sternberg’s
Triarchic Theory
There are 3 dimensions to intelligence;
analytic (book smarts), creative
(thinking out side of the box), practical
(street smarts)
IQ tests measure only analytic
intelligence, but creative intelligence
(which involves dealing with new
problems) and practical intelligence
(which involves adapting to one’s
environment) may also be important to
success in school and at work
Approaches to Intelligence
Intelligence (Ch. 10)
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Eight semi-independent kinds of intelligence
Linguistic: Shakespeare
Logical-mathematical: Einstein
Spatial: Picasso or taxi driver
Musical: Mozart or The Beatles
Body-kinesthetic: Michael Jordan
Intrapersonal: Freud or Dr. Phil
Interpersonal: Oprah or Gandhi
Naturalistic: Darwin or Jane Goodall
Question
Ask any good chef, and they’ll tell you that
meals should not only taste great, but should
look attractive as well. Thus, according to
Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory, the most
successful chefs should have a high degree of
____________ intelligence.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Analytic
Linguistic
Creative
Emotional
Question
Ten-year old Marianne has autism and is unable to
socialize normally with other children. However, when
presented with a complex mathematical problem, she is
able to produce an accurate answer within seconds.
Cases such as this, in which a person is barely able to
function in one area but is exceptionally skilled in
another, support the notion that we possess
__________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Special intelligences
A general intelligence
Multiple intelligences
Creative intelligence
Focusing Light
Sensation (Ch. 4)
Make sure you know the parts of the eye:
cornea, pupil, iris, lens, and retina
Accommodation: focusing ability of lenslens changes shape and bends light rays
Photoreceptors: convert light into neural
activity


Rods- black and white
Cones- colors
Focusing Light
Sensation (Ch. 4)
Cornea: light enters eye through this (curved,
transparent, protective layer)
Pupil: Light then passes through this structure—
the black part of the eye
Iris: Adjusts amount of light allowed into the eye
(the colored part)
Lens: Bends light rays and focuses on retina
Retina: Light rays focused into an image on the
retina- back of eye
Focusing Light
Sensation (Ch. 4)
Check out your book and this sweet sweet
website for more info!
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/bigeye.html
Question
Warren is able to see his watch clearly to
check the time because his lens changes
shape to focus the light onto the fovea through
a process called _____________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Accommodation
Acuity
Adaption
Transduction
Question
When Karyan noticed an engagement ring on her
friend’s hand she brought the ring closer to her eyes
and to the very center of her visual field to examine it.
Why?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Visual acuity is highest in the periphery of the eye,
Which is rich in rods.
She wanted to decrease the lateral inhibition in the
ganglia.
Visual acuity is highest in the fovea of the eye, which is
rich in cones.
She wanted to increase the lateral inhibition in the
ganglia
Forgetting: Decay and Inference
Memory (Ch. 7)
Decay: gradual disappearance of mental
representation of stimulus info fades
until completely out of memory
Interference: either storage or retrieval of
info is impaired by presence of other info.


Retroactive interference: new info interferes
with old (old is what you can’t remember)
Proactive interference: old info interferes with
new (new is what you can’t remember)
Question
As Ophelia was filling out a loan application she could
easily recall her current address, but she could not
remember her previous address even though she had
lived there for four years. Ophelia was likely
experiencing _______________, which occurs when
forming a new memory and makes it harder to recall a
previous memory.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Proactive interference
Decay
Retroactive interference
Spreading activation
Signaling of Significant Events
Learning (Ch. 6)
Timing



Forward Conditioning: Present NS then UCS
afterwards (example presenting the bell then
the steak to the dog)
Backward Conditioning: UCS then NS
(Present food then bell)
Simultaneous conditioning: having UCS and
NS presented at the same time
Signaling of Significant Events
Learning (Ch. 6)
Predictability- Conditioned stimulus ALWAYS
signals unconditioned stimulus and only the
unconditioned stimulus

Bell rings Class dismissed
Signal strength- Stronger unconditioned stimulus
the better


(intense stimuli = good attention grabbers)
(Quiet bell verses loud bell)
Attention: Several stimuli present

Most closely attended to = most associated with UCS
Signaling of Significant Events
Learning (Ch. 6)
Second-order conditioning: Conditioned
stimulus acts like an unconditioned
stimulus

Check out the example in your book, Page
201
Biopreparedness: Natural tendency for
certain events to become linked

Conditioned taste aversion
Eating something and getting sick….now you can’t
eat it again or sometimes even look at it
Question
After many trials, the rats in Dr. Mitchell’s experiment
learned that by pressing a bar in their cage after a red
light flashed, they could avoid getting shocked. Dr.
Mitchell decided to ring a buzzer directly before the red
light flashed, and the rats eventually began to press the
bar as soon as the buzzer rang. This is an example of
__________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Biopreparedness
Stimulus discrimination
Second-order conditioning
Extinction
Constructing Memory
Memory (Ch. 7)
Levels-of-processing: how you encode it into your
memory (deeper processing is better than shallow
processing)


Maintenance- repeating over and over (STM)
Elaborative- relating info to info you already know (LTM)
Transfer appropriate: retrieval matches first
encoding
Info-processing: info passing through sensory,
STM/working, LTM
*Parallel-distributed processing: neural networks and
semantic activation; integrate with existing info
Constructing Memories
Memory (Ch. 7)
Constructive Memory: use generalized
knowledge about world to organize new info as
we receive it

Look over pages 253 – 255 in book (schemas, etc.)
Eyewitness testimony: eyewitness can only
remember what they perceive—leaving out
different parts of the story (encode the general
“gist”)

Misinformation effect: Example “How fast were the
cars going when they SMASHED into each other? pg.
256
Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning (Ch 6)
Continuous reinforcement scheduleReinforced every time
Partial reinforcement schedule: (over a
long time) only reinforced sometimes
Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning (Ch. 6)
Fixed-ratio (FR): fixed # of responses
Variable-ratio (VR): Varying # of responses
Fixed-interval (FI): Fixed time


Fixed amount of time has passed since last
reward
Example: Getting paid every 2 weeks
Variable-interval (VI): Varying Time

Pop Quiz
Schedules of Reinforcement
Learning (Ch. 6)
Number of necessary
responses
Predictable
Unpredictable (“on the
average”)
Time that must first
past
Fixed Ratio
(FR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Types of Reinforcers
Learning (Ch 6)
Primary Reinforcers: Meets basic needs
(example: food)
Secondary Reinforcers: rewards that
people/animals learn to like (example:
“good girl” or money)
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Learning (Ch. 6)
Generalization: CR is elicited by stimuli that are
SIMILAR but not identical to CS
-Ex: If a child got scared by a small dog they also may
be scared by a large rabbit because they are similar
and are unable to tell the difference
Discrimination: DIFFERENTIATE among similar
stimuli and respond appropriately to each one

The child would be able to tell the difference between
the dog and a polar bear. It would throw a temper
tantrum when it saw a dog but not a polar bear.
Question
Dr. Laura wanted to teach pigeons how to differentiate
the colors red and green. The pigeons were rewarded
with food when they pecked at a red circular disk but
not when they pecked at a green circular disk.
Eventually the pigeons learned to peck only at the red
disk to receive a food reward. The pigeons were
exhibiting __________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
Spontaneous Recovery
Simultaneous Conditioning
Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
Learning (Ch. 6)
Classical: Neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired
with stimulus that elicits a reflex (involuntary)
response until neutral stimulus alone comes to
elicit similar response (learned association
between 2 events)
Operant: Organism learns to respond (voluntary
behaviors) to environment in way that produces
positive (+) consequences and avoids negative
(-) ones
Depth Cues
Perception (Ch. 5)
Interposition: closer block farther away
Relative Size: larger are closer
Height in visual field: higher are distant
Texture gradient: clearer are closer
Linear perspective: convergence of II
(railroad tracts)
Check out pg. 166-167 for info on
accommodation, motion parallax,
convergence, and binocular disparity
What depth cue is shown?
LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
Parallel lines appear to converge as they
recede into the distance.
What depth cue is shown?
Texture Gradient
Textured surfaces, such as pebbles on a
beach, or waves on the sea, look rougher
closer up than from a distance. We use
texture gradient as a clue to distance
What depth cue is shown?
Height in a Visual Field
In this example the red boat looks as
though it is nearer as it is lower in the
plane than the green boat
What depth cue is shown?
Relative Size
Larger objects are seen as closer.
Development of Language
Language (Ch. 8)
Consult Pages 309- 317 in the text
Linguistic determinism- language shapes thought


Example: Snow. English language only has one word for snow;
Eskimos may have multiple words for snow. So Whorf believed
that Eskimos thought about snow differently.
Also refer to the color example
Framing Effect- language can affect reasoning, problem
solving, and decision making; thinking influenced by
words used to describe situation

Example: Going to the grocery store. One box says “no added
fat” and another says “15% fat”; they could easily mean the
same thing.
Development of Language
Language (Ch. 8)
First Year

Babbling: patterns of meaningless sounds that
resemble speech
Second Year

One-word stage: language begins to develop one
word at a time
This stage usually last about six months (ex: “Out”, “Eat”, etc)

Telegraphic: Short (two word) sentences;
no prepositions (in, on, out…)
Use different tones for questions than demands


Example: “give book” “go out?”
(more examples in your book)