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Consequences of Labeling
The Consequences of Labeling
• Affects one’s master status
• Affects one’s self-image
• Affects one’s life chances
Have you ever been arrested by
the police?
All Students
Males
Females
19.0%
40.0%
9.3%
reckless endangerment, DWI, public drunkenness
disorderly conduct, possession, under age drinking,
shoplifting, trespassing, PWID
Secondary Deviance
• Secondary Deviance – deviance that
results from having been labeled deviant
• Internalization
• Reduced opportunities
“The Mark of a Criminal Record”
Pager (2003), AJS
• Background
• Over 2 million currently incarcerated in U.S.
• 95% of all inmates are eventually released
• Over 12 million ex-felons in the U.S.
• Roughly 8% of the working-age population
• Research Question
• What are the consequences of incarceration for
the employment outcomes of black and white
men?
“The Mark of a Criminal Record”
Pager (2003), AJS
• Audit Methodology
• Sent matched pairs of of individuals (called
“testers”) to apply for real job openings to see
whether employers responded differently to
applicants on the basis of race and criminal
record. 350 “audits” were done.
• Four Testers, 2 black, two white
• 23 years old, matched on appearance, style of
presentation, and background characteristics
“The Mark of a Criminal Record”
Pager (2003), AJS
• The white and black pair took turns
claiming to have a criminal record
• Felony drug charge (possession with intent to
distribute cocaine), plus 18 months in prison
• The researcher counted the number of
callbacks the applicant-testers got
“The Mark of a Criminal”
Percent Receiving Callbacks
34
14
17
5
Black
Criminal Record
White
No Criminal Record