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The Respiratory System • Pulmonary ventilaton-movement of air in and out of lungs;ventilation/breathing. • External respiration-gas exchange between blood and alveolar sacs. • Transport of respiratory gasescardiovascular transport of oxygen/carbon dioxide between lungs and tissue cells. • Internal respiration Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System • Organs-Nose,nasal cavity,pharynx,larynx, trachea, bronchi,smaller branches, lungs,alveoli. • Respiratory zone-respiratory bronchioles,alveolar ducts,alveoli. • Conducting zone-entrance, nasal cavity,bronchioles. The Nose and Paranasal Sinuses • Nose provides: airway, moistens/warms entering air,filters,speech resonating chamber,olfactory receptors. • External nose-nasal bones, maxillary bone, lateral cartilage,greater & lesser alar cartilages,external nares • Nasal cavity-septum(septal cartilage, perpendicular plate, vomer),conchae,meati, respiratory epithelium • Paranasal sinuses-frontal,sphenoid, ethmoid,maxillary. The Pharynx • Connects nasal cavity and mouth to larynx and esophagus. • Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx • Nasopharynx-posterior to nasal cavity,inferior to sphenoid bone, superior to soft palate level;auditory tubes The Pharynx (cont’d) • Oropharynx-lies posterior to oral cavity;extends from soft palate to esophagus; epithelium transitions from pseudostratified to strat. squamous; palatine, lingual tonsils • Laryngopharynx-lies directly posterior to epiglottis and extends to larynx The Larynx • Voice box extends 2 inches from C4-C6;attaches to hyoid bone superiorly • Functions in providing patent airway and to route air and food into proper channels;voice production. • Laryngeal framework-thyroid cart., laryngeal prominence,cricoid cart., arytenoid, corniculate,cuneiform,vestibular fold,vocal fold,epiglottis • Laryngeal musculatureextrinsic(stabilization);intrinsic(regulate vocal fold tension). The Trachea • Descends from larynx into mediastinum • 10-12 cm (4 inches) long,2.5cm diameter(1 inch) • Tracheal walls-mucosa, submucosa, adventitia • Trachealis muscle • Carina The Bronchi and Subdivisions: The Bronchial Tree The Conducting Zone • Right/left primary bronchi(extrapulmonary) • Secondary(lobar),tertiary(segmental), terminal bronchioles • Structural changes occur as bronchi diameter diminish:(1)cartilage rings replaced by irregular cartilaginous plates; (2)pseudostratified>columnar>cuboidal; and (3)smooth muscle increases. The Bronchial Tree The Respiratory Zone • Terminal bronchioles feed into into respiratory bronchioles. • Alveolar ducts • Alveolar sacs Gross Anatomy of the Lungs • • • • • Apex, base, root Lobes: Superior, middle, inferior Fissures:Horizontal,oblique Surfaces: Costal, mediastinal, cardiac notch Connective tissue, trabeculae, elastic fibers, smooth muscles, and lymphatics. Blood Supply and Innervation of the Lungs • Pulmonary arteries,arterioles, pulmonary capillary network, venules, veins • Bronchial arteries • Pulmonary plexus-parasympathetic motor, visceral sensory fibers The Pleurae • Parietal • Visceral • Pleural cavity Respiratory Muscles • Diaphragm • External,internal intercostal • Accessory muscles: Sternocleidomastoid,serratus anterior, pectoralis minor, scalenes (inspiration) Respiratory Muscles (cont’d) • Accessory muscles:external/internal intercostals, abdominal obliques, and rectus abdominis(expiration) Respiratory movements: • Eupnea (diaphragmatic breathing/costal breathing) • Hyperpnea Respiratory membrane • Type I cells (epitheliocytes)-alveolar walls; angiotensin converting enzyme(ACE) • Type II cells-secrete surfactant (interferes w/H20 molecule cohesiveness • Alveolar macrophages • Respiratory membrane-fused basal laminas of alveolar epithelium & capillary endothelium Pulmonary Ventilation • Inspiration-diaphragm,intercostals • Expiration-quiet vs. forced Medullary Respiratory Centers • Dorsal respiratory group-root of Cn IX;pacesetting; inspiratory center • Ventral respiratory group-extends within ventral brain stem to pons-medulla junction;forced breathing • Pons respiratory centers-fine tunes inspiration/expiration transition;deters overinflation Pathologies Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease • Obstructive emphysema-alveolar enlargement,alveolar wall deterioration • Chronic bronchitis-inhaled irritants • Asthma • Tuberculosis • Lung Cancer Digestive System • Alimentary canal(digestion/absorption)mouth, pharynx,esophagus, stomach, small intestine,large intestine. • Accessory organs-teeth, tongue,salivary glands, gall bladder,liver, and pancreas. Digestive Process • Ingestion • Propulsion • Mechanical digestion • Chemical digestion • Absorption • Excretion * Digestive lining protects against corrosive effects of enzymes/acids,abrasions, and pathogens. Mesenteries • Fused double sheets of peritoneal membrane;provides routes for blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves. • Organ reinforcement, prevent entanglement • Lesser/greater omentum, mesocolon(transverse,sigmoid) • Retroperitoneal(pancreas,large intestine);intraperitoneal(stomach) Histological Organization • • • • Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa The Mucosa and Submucosa • Mucus secretion, absorption, protection • Submucosa-loose CT surrounding muscularis mucosae;contains blood/lymphatic vessels,nodules, nerve fibers. Muscularis Externa • Responsible for peristalsis/segmentation • Circular(inner)layer,longitudinal(outer)lay er-sphincters • Myenteric plexus (of Auerbach) The Serosa • Protective outermost layer of intraperitoneal organs(visceral peritoneum);areolar CT; pharyngeal, esophageal,rectal serosa replaced by adventitia (fibrous CT) Peristalsis/Segmentation • Peristaltic wave-rhythmic contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles; pacesetter cells • Segmentation-churn and fragment digested materials;circular contractions Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System Oral Cavity • • • • Bounded by lips, cheeks, palate, tongue Vestibule, labial frenulum Hard/soft palate(uvula) Palatopharyngeal, palatoglossal arches • Tongue;dorsum with papillae;frenulum The Teeth • Primary(deciduous),permanent dentitions • Incisors,canines, premolars, molars • Formula: 2I, 1C, 2PM,3M x 2 =32 2I, 1C, 2PM,3M • Structure:Enamel,dentin, pulp cavity, root canal,periodontal ligament, cementum, gingival sulcus. Salivary Glands • Saliva: 99% water +buffers, metabolites, enzymes. • Saliva cleanses mouth, moistens/dissolves food. • Extrinsics: parotid, submandibular, sublingual; intrinsics: buccal The Pharynx • Pharyngeal constrictors-initiates bolus movements • Palato/Stylopharyngeus-elevate larynx • Palatal muscles-raise soft palate & portions of pharyngeal wall • Swallowing process/phases: buccal, pharyngeal, esophageal The Esophagus • Hollow, muscular tube:25 cm.long,2 cm diameter • C6 to T7 • Angiology: esophageal,thyrocervical trunk, external carotids, bronchials, celiac trunk & inferior phrenic artery • Innervation: Vagus & esophageal plexus The Esophagus (cont’d) • Mucosal stratified epithelium • Esophageal glands • Superior 1/3 has skeletal muscles fibers, middle third has skeletal/smooth mixture;bottom third has smooth;visceral reflexes • No serosa The Stomach • Stomach functions in: storage of ingested food, mechanical breakdown, and chemical digestion(chyme formation). • T7-L3 • 15-25 cm long; empty(50ml),full(up to 4L). • Rugae • Cardia, body, fundus, lesser/greater curvatures • Pylorus, sphincter. The Stomach (cont’d) • Angiology: left gastric (lesser curve & cardia), splenic(fundus & greater curve),common hepatic(lesser/greater curves of pylorus) • Innervation:Thoracic splanchnic nerves(sympathetic fibers) from celiac plexus;parasympathetics supplied from vagus nerve. • Musculature:circular, longitudinal Stomach Histology • Gastric pits/glands • Gastric glands have three cell types:(1) parietal-HCL/intrinsic factor;(2) chiefpepsinogen, rennin/gastric lipase(newborns);(3) enteroendocrinegastrin The Small Intestine • • • • • Body’s major digestive organ 6m long, 4cm-2.5 cm diameter Accounts for 90% of nutrient absorption Plicae circulares Three subdivisions: duodenum, jejunum, ileum Small Intestine (cont’d) • Duodenum is retroperitoneal; (L1-L4) • Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter, major duodenal papilla. • Jejunum;2.5 m long • Ileum(peritoneal);3.6m long;ends at valve Intestinal Histology • Intestinal villi-contain lacteals, microvilli,enterocytes • Intestinal crypts-secrete intestinal juice • Peyer’s patches -lymphoid follicles found in submucosa • Brunner’s glands-occur in duodenal submucosa Large Intestine • Frames small intestine on three sides and extends from ileocecal valve to anus • 1.5m long • Functions:(1) resorption of water/ electrolytes;compaction of feces(2)vitamin absorption(bacterial flora) Large Intestine (cont’d) • Cecum,vermiform appendix • Colon:haustra,taenia coli, epiploic appendages • Colon regions:Ascending>hepatic flexure>transverse>splenic flexure>descending>sigmoid flexure>sigmoid • Rectum: Anal canal/ columns, internal/external anal sphincter, anal orifice. The Liver • Largest visceral organ • Functions:metabolic/hematological regulation, bile production. • Falciform ligament,ligamentum teres, lobes (right,left,caudate, quadrate),porta hepatis • Angiology: hepatic artery proper,portal vein Liver Histology(cont’d) • Lobules(central vein),hepatocytes • Portal triad:hepatic artery branch, portal vein branch, bile duct • Sinusoids(hepatic macrophages) Gall Bladder • Stores/modifies bile • Fundus, body, neck • Cystic duct The Pancreas • • • • • • Exo/endocrine gland Head, body, tail Retroperitoneal Pancreatic/accessory pancreatic duct Exocrine product-pancreatic juice Islets of Langerhans