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Ecology
鄭先祐 (Ayo) 教授
國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
生態科學與技術學系
環境生態研究所 + 生態旅遊研究所
生態學 (Ecology) 課程大綱 (整體)
 T01. 簡介：生態學 (Chap.1)
I. 個體與環境 (Chap.2,3,4,5,6)
II. 族群生態學 (Chap.7,8,9,10)
III. 個體間互動 (Chap.11,12,13,14)
IV. 群落生態學 (Chap.15,16,17,18)
V. 生態體系生態學 (Chap.19,20,21)
VI. 應用生態學 (Chap.22,23,24)
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生態學 (Ecology) 課程大綱 (上)
 T01. 簡介：生態學 (Chap.1)
I. 個體與環境
 T02. 物理環境與生物界 (Chap. 2,3)
 T03. 環境適應 (Chap. 4,5)
 T04. 演化學與生態學 (Chap. 6)
II. 族群生態學
 T05. 生活史與族群分布 (Chap. 7, 8)
 T06. 族群成長與變動 (Chap. 9,10)
III. 個體間互動
 T07. 競爭、掠食與草食 (Chap.11,12)
 T08. 寄生與互利共生 (Chap.13,14)
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生態學 (Ecology) 課程大綱 (下)
 Unit IV. 群落生態學
 T09. 群落與演進(替) (Chap. 15,16)
 T10. 生物地理 (Chap.17)
 T11. 物種多樣性 (Chap.18)
 Unit V. 生態體系生態學
 T12. 生產、能量循流與食物網 (Chap.19,20)
 T13. 營養供應與循環 (Chap.21)
 Unit VI. 應用生態學
 T14. 保育生物學 (Chap.22)
 T15. 景觀生態學與生態體系經營管理 (Chap.23)
 T16. 全球生態學 (Chap.24)
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 T01. 簡介：生態學
• Chap.1 Introduction: The web of Life
 I. 個體與環境
 T02. 物理環境與生物界
• Chap.2 the Physical Environment
• Chap.3 the Biosphere
 T03. 環境適應
• Chap.4 Coping with Environmental variation:
Temperature and Water
• Chap.5 Coping with Environmental variation: Energy
 T04. 演化學與生態學
• Chap.6 Evolution and Ecology
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 II. 族群生態學
 T05. 生活史與族群分布
• Chap.7 Life History Analyses
• Chap.8 Population distribution and abundance
 T06. 族群成長與變動
• Chap.9 Population growth and regulation
• Chap.10 population dynamics
 III. 個體間互動
 T07. 競爭、掠食與草食
• Chap.11 Competition
• Chap.12 Predation and Herbivory
 T08.寄生與互利共生
• Chap.13 Parasitism
• Chap.14 Mutualism and Commensalism
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 Unit IV. 群落生態學
 T09. 群落與演進(替)
• Chap.15 The Nature of Communities
• Chap.16 Change in Communities
 T10. 生物地理
• Chap.17 Biogeography
 T11. 物種多樣性
• Chap.18 Species diversity in communities
 Unit V. 生態體系生態學
 T12. 生產、能量循流與食物網
• Chap.19 Production
• Chap.20 Energy flow and food webs
 T13. 營養供應與循環
• Chap.21 Nutrient supply and cycling
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 Unit VI. 應用生態學
 T14. 保育生物學
• Chap.22 Conservation biology
 T15. 景觀生態學與生態體系經營管理
• Chap.23 Landscape Ecology and Ecosystem
management
 T16. 全球生態學
• Chap.24 Global Ecology
 Appendix
 Answers to review questions
 Glossary
 Illustration credits
 Literature cited
 index
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作者 I： Michael L. Cain
Ph.D. in Ecology and Evolutionary
Biology from Cornell University
Taught at New Mexico State University
and the Rose-Hulman Institute of
Technology, and is currently affiliated
with Bowdoin college.
His research interests include: plant
population ecology, long-distance
dispersal, ecological and
evolutionary dynamics in hybrid
zones, and search behavior in plants
and animals.
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作者 II： William D. Bowman
His Ph.D. from Duke University
Is a professor at University of Colorado
at Boulder, affiliated with both the
Department of Ecology and
Evolutionary Biology and the
Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research.
His research focuses on plant ecology,
biogeochemistry, and community
dynamics.
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作者 III： Sally D. Hacker
Received her Ph.D. from the
Department of Ecology ad
Evolutionary Biology at Brown
University.
Associate professor in the department
of Zoology at Oregon State University.
Research explores species
interactions and how they influence
community formation, species
diversity, and species invasions.
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Preface (01)
 This is an exciting and challenging time to
study ecology.
 應用於面對與化解環境問題
 新技術的運用，分子技術，衛星影像技術
 熱門的學科
 學生需要學習多元多樣的知識和能力
 缺少適宜的(好的)教科書
 Two core principles that guided our writing.
 Teaching comes First.
 Less is More.
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Preface (02) Features
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
13
Pedagogical excellence
Subject matter
Case studies
Connections in Nature
Ecological inquiry
Hands-on Problem solving
Ecological applications
Links to evolution
Art Program
Ayo 2011 Ecology
Supplements
Companion website
 教科書的網站：
http://www.sinauer.com/ecology
 Ayo NUTN website：(教學網站)
http://myweb.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
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T01.簡介：生態學
Chap.01 The Web of Life
鄭先祐 (Ayo) 教授
國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
生態科學與技術學系
環境生態研究所 + 生態旅遊研究所
Chap. 1 Introduction: The Web of Life
Case Study: Deformity and Decline in
Amphibian Populations
Introduction
1.1 Connections in Nature
1.2 Ecology
1.3 Answering Ecological Questions
Case Study Revisited
Connections in Nature: Mission
Impossible?
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Case Study: Deformity and Decline in
Amphibian Populations
 High incidence of deformities
in amphibians
 Declining populations of
amphibians worldwide
 Many declining populations
were in pristine or protected
areas.
 Amphibians are “biological
indicators” of environmental
problems.
 Air and water pollution,
changes in temperature and
in the amount of ultraviolet
light.
Figure 1.1 Deformed Leopard Frogs
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Figure 1.2 Amphibians in Decline
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Introduction
Humans have enormous impact on the
planet.
We must understand how natural
systems work.
Ecology: The scientific study of how
organisms affect—and are affected by—
other organisms and their environment.
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1.1 Connections in Nature
Concept 1.1: Events in the natural world are
interconnected.
Even species that do not interact
directly can be connected by shared
environmental features.
Ecologists ask questions about the
natural world to understand these
connections.
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Observation and test hypothesis
 觀察：Observation of the deformities of pacific
tree frogs and long-toed salamanders.
 証據：the deformed amphibians all contained a
parasite, known to be Ribeiroia ondatrae, a
trematode (吸蟲類) flatworm (扁形蠕蟲門).
 Ruth 提出假說：hypothesized that a parasite
can cause deformities.
 驗證：Implanted glass beads(玻璃小珠) mimic the
effect of the cysts (囊胞) of the parasite.
 結果：The beads caused deformities similar to the
parasite.
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Johnson’s work (01)
35 ponds in Santa Clara county.
13 ponds with Pacific tree frogs,
 4 of 13 ponds contained deformed frogs.
 2 of 4 ponds，高達15-45% of tadpoles in
metamorphosis 有畸形。
 原本以為是水污染的結果。Pesticides,
PCBs, or heavy metals等，但於這2 ponds
的水中都沒有發現。
 採集200顆卵回實驗室，成長都正常。因此
並不是遺傳。
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Johnson’s work (02)
The 4 ponds with abnormal frogs were
the only ponds that contained both tree
frogs and an aquatic snail,
Planorbella tenuis.
 The snail is an intermediate host in the life
cycle of the Ribeiroia parasite (Fig. 1.3)
 Ribeiroia cysts in all the frogs with
deformed limbs.
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Figure 1.3 The Life Cycle of Ribeiroia
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Johnson’s work (03)
假說：Ribeiroia caused deformities
in Pacific tree frogs.
驗證：controlled experiment
 Tree frog eggs were exposed to Ribeiroia
parasites in the lab.
 Four treatments: 0 (the control group), 16,
32, or 48 Ribeiroia parasites.
 結果 (Fig. 1.4)
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Figure 1.4 Parasites Can Cause Amphibian Deformities
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A field experiment: Kiesecker (2002)
現象：
 Six ponds, all of with contained Ribeiroia,
but only some of which contained pesticides
 Six ponds, three with pesticide
contamination.
野外實驗方法：(Fig. 1.4)
 Six cages in each pond, three with mesh
size that allowed parasite to enter, the other
three had a mesh too small for the
parasites.. (Fig. 1.5a)
 結果 (Fig. 1.5b)
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Figure 1.5a. Do Ribeiroia and Pesticides Interact in Nature?
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Figure 1.5b, Do Ribeiroia and Pesticides Interact in Nature?
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1.1 Connections in Nature
Hypothesis: Pesticides decrease the
ability of frogs to resist infection by
parasites.
Lab experiment: Tadpoles reared in
presence of pesticides had fewer white
blood cells (indicating a suppressed
immune system) and a higher rate of
Ribeiroia cyst formation. (Fig. 1.6)
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Tadpoles exposed to the
pesticide had fewer eosinophils
Figure 1.6 Pesticides May Weaken Tadpole Immune Systems (Part 1)
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Figure 1.6 Pesticides May Weaken Tadpole Immune Systems (Part 2)
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1.1 Connections in Nature
Synthetic pesticide use began in 1930s;
use has increased dramatically.
Amphibian exposure to pesticides has
also increased.
Any action (increased pesticide use by
people) can have unanticipated side
effects (more frequent deformities in
amphibians).
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1.1 Connections in Nature
Fertilizer use may also be a factor:
Fertilizer in runoff to ponds increases
algal growth.
Snails that harbor Ribeiroia parasites
eat algae.
Greater numbers of snails result in
greater numbers of Ribeiroia parasites.
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1.1 Connections in Nature
Many human actions have also increased
human health risks.
Damming rivers in Africa increases
habitat for snails that carry
schistosomiasis.
New diseases, such as AIDS, Lyme
disease, Hantavirus, Ebola, and West
Nile fever (Fig. 1.7) may be related to
human actions.
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West Nile Fever
Figure 1.7 Rapid Spread of a Deadly Disease (Part 1)
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West Nile Fever
Figure 1.7 Rapid Spread of a Deadly Disease (Part 2)
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1.2 Ecology
Concept 1.2: Ecology is the scientific study
of interactions between organisms and their
environment.
Ecology is a branch of biology.
Environmental science incorporates
concepts from the natural sciences
(including ecology) and the social
sciences, and focuses on solutions to
environmental problems.
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1.2 Ecology
Early ecological views:
1. There is a “balance of nature,” in which
natural systems are stable and tend to return
to an original state after disturbance.
2. Each species has a distinct role to play in
maintaining that balance.
Scientists now recognize that ecological
interactions are more complex.
One view that stood the test of time: Events in
nature are interconnected.
“You can never do just one thing.”
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1.2 Ecology
Ecologists study interactions in nature
across many levels of organization.
Ecological studies usually emphasize
individuals, populations,
communities, or ecosystems.
Levels of Biological organization (Figure
1.8)
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Figure 1.8 Levels of Biological Organization (Part 1)
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Figure 1.8 Levels of Biological Organization (Part 2)
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1.2 Ecology
A population: A group of individuals of a single
species that live in a particular area and
interact with one another.
A community: An association of populations of
different species living in the same area.
An ecosystem: A community of organisms plus
the physical environment in which they live.
All the world’s ecosystems comprise the
biosphere — all living organisms on Earth
plus the environments in which they live.
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(A) Savanna
(B) Rainforest
(C) Dunes in the Namib
desert
(D) Shallow-water marine
community
Figure 1.9 A Few of Earth’s Many Communities
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Ecology is broad in scope and scale
Every ecological study must be done
at an appropriate scale, both
spatially and temporally.
Small spatial scale: Soil
microorganisms.
Large spatial scale: Atmospheric
pollutants.
Short temporal scale: Leaf response
to sunlight.
Long temporal scale: How species
change over geologic time.
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Key terms (Table 1.2)
All living systems change over time.
Evolution:
1. A change in the genetic characteristics
of a population over time.
2. Descent with modification—organisms
gradually accumulate differences from
their ancestors.
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Key terms
Natural selection: Individuals with
particular adaptations tend to survive
and reproduce at a higher rate than
other individuals.
If the adaptation is heritable, the
offspring will tend to have the same
characteristics that gave their parents
an advantage.
As a result, the frequency of those
characteristics may increase in a
population over time.
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Figure 1.10 Natural Selection in Action
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Key terms
Ecosystem processes: Movement of energy
and materials.
Energy enters the community when producers
capture energy from an external source, such
as the sun, and uses that energy to produce
food.
Net primary productivity (NPP): Energy that
producers capture by photosynthesis or other
means, minus the amount they lose as heat in
cellular respiration.
Energy moves through ecosystems in a single
direction only—it cannot be recycled.
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Figure 1.11 How Ecosystems Work
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Key terms
Nutrients are continuously recycled
from the physical environment to
organisms and back again.
Nutrient cycle: Cyclic movement of
nutrients such as nitrogen or
phosphorus between organisms and the
physical environment.
Life would cease if nutrients were not
recycled.
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1.3 Answering Ecological Questions
Concept 1.3: Ecologists evaluate competing
hypotheses about natural systems with
experiments, observations, and models.
Ecologists use several methods to answer
questions about the natural world:
1. Observational studies in the field.
2. Controlled experiments in the
laboratory.
3. Experiments in the field.
4. Quantitative models.
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1.3 Answering Ecological Questions
 An observational field study:
 Johnson et al. (1999) surveyed ponds to determine
that frogs with deformities were only present if the
parasite’s intermediate host snail was also present.
 A controlled experiment:
 Johnson et al. (1999) also tested their observations
by exposing tadpoles to different levels of the
parasite Ribeiroia in the laboratory.
 A field experiment:
 Kiesecker (2002) compared frogs from three ponds
containing pesticides with frogs from three ponds
that had no pesticides.
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Table 2.3
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The scales do matter
 Ecological experiments can be done at
different scales:
 Small-scale laboratory experiments in test
tubes or flasks, to whole-lake experiments.
 Sometimes experiments are difficult or
impossible to perform.
 Example: When questions concern events
occurring over large geographic scales, such
as global warming.
 The study of global warming involves using a
mixture of observational studies, small-scale
experiments, and quantitative (mathematical
or computer) models.
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(A) Laboratory
experiments
(B) small-scale field
experiments
(C) Large-scale
experiments
Figure 1.12 Ecological Experiments
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Experimental design:
1. Replicate—perform each treatment more
than once.
2. Assign treatments at random.
3. Statistical analysis is used to determine
significant effects.
 Replication: As the number of replicates
increases, it becomes less likely that the
results were actually due to a variable that
was not measured or controlled.
 Assigning treatments at random helps to limit
the effects of unmeasured variables.
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This study was
designed to test the
effects of insect
herbivores on plant
growth and asexual
reproduction.
A set of 5x5 meter
plots.
Figure 1.13 Experimental Design and Analysis
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Scientific method:
1. Make observations and ask questions.
2. Use previous knowledge or intuition to
develop possible answers (hypotheses).
3. Evaluate hypotheses by performing
experiments, doing observational studies, or
using quantitative models.
4. Use the results to modify the hypotheses,
to pose new questions, or to draw
conclusions about the natural world.
5. The process is iterative (反覆的) and selfcorrecting (自我修正的).
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Case Study Revisited: Deformity and
Decline in Amphibian Populations
 Studies have suggested that no single factor
can explain decline of amphibian populations.
 The declines seem to be caused by complex
factors that often act together and may vary from
place to place.
 Hatch and Blaustein (2003) studied the effects
of UV light and nitrate on Pacific tree frog
tadpoles.
 At high elevation sites, neither factor alone had
any affect. But together, the two factors reduced
tadpole survival.
 At low elevation sites, this effect was not seen.
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Joint effects
Synergetic effects
Figure 1.14 Joint Effects of Nitrate and UV Light on Tadpole Survival
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Case Study Revisited: Deformity and
Decline in Amphibian Populations
The effects of pesticides are also
complex.
 Some studies show that tadpoles are
more susceptible when under stress,
such as presence of predators.
A broad set of factors can cause frog
deformities, but little is known about
how these factors interact.
 There remains much to be discovered in
the field of ecology.
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Figure 1.15 Complex Causation of Amphibian Deformities
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Connections in Nature: Mission Impossible?
The natural world is vast, complex, and
interconnected.
But ecologists think that it is not
impossible to understand it.
 Ongoing efforts are sure to be
challenging, exciting, and important to
the well-being of human societies.
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科學研究者的懷疑論
補充資料
Scientists demand hard evidence.
Most good scientists are skeptics
Any idea, hypothesis, or experiment is
certain to be challenged by someone.
Like hypotheses, theories are open to
tests, revision, and tentative
acceptance or rejection.
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科學驗證的可能錯誤
補充資料
 型一錯誤 (Type I error)
 否定 null 假說，但事實是「null 假說是成立的」
 the conclusion that there is an effect when in fact
there is none, (否定 null 假說，但事實是「假說是
成立的」)
 型二錯誤 (Type II error)
 接受 null 假說，但事實是「null 假說是錯誤的」
 when an impact exists but is not detected. (接受
null 假說，但事實是「假說是錯誤的」)
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型一 (Type I)錯誤 vs. 型二(Type II)錯誤
真實情況
Ho 是真實
Ho 是錯誤
驗證結果
拒絕 Ho
接受 Ho
結果錯誤
(型一錯誤)
結果正確
結果正確
結果錯誤
(型二錯誤)
補充資料
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下降錯誤的目的與取樣方法：型一 vs. 型二
下降型一錯誤：
 目的：儘可能的不要 拒絕「零假說」。
 取樣：隨機，擴大範圍與數量
下降型二錯誤：
 目的：盡可能的不要 接受「零假說」。
 取樣：重點，按最可能地點(重點)取樣。
補充資料
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自然科學 vs. 公害的研究
補充資料
自然現象的研究，盡量的下降 型一錯誤。
 盡量避免否定「零假說」。
 如此可以避免研究方向的錯誤。
對於公害或生態保育的研究，則需要選擇下降
型二錯誤。
 盡量要否定「零假說」。
 公害往往隱藏，受害往往有空窗期。警訊出
現，往往如同冰山一角。
 倘若遺漏，等到其爆發，災難難以承擔，或
已經難以挽回。
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補充資料
自然運作，廣泛。
 取樣宜擴大範圍，
隨機取樣
人為運作，集中。
 取樣若擴大範圍，
隨機取樣，遺漏
重點的機率增加。
 盡量避免萬一沒
有發現問題
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Dioxin 污染調查
補充資料
案例：台江國家公園的戴奧辛污染調查。
如何取樣？
 下降「型一錯誤」的方法
• 平均隨機取樣，廣泛取樣。
• 未必可找到污染地點。
 下降「型二錯誤」的方法
• 找尋最有可能受污染的地點，密集取樣
• 務必要找到污染地點。
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生態學定位與發展史
補充資料
鄭先祐 (Ayo) 教授
國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
生態科學與技術學系
環境生態研究所 + 生態旅遊研究所
「生態學」的定位(起源)
 第一個使用 ecology (Haeckel, E., 1866)。
 Ecology as a part of physiology (生理學)。
 名詞：Ecology
 字源取自 eco-nomics (household+management)
 eco-logy (the study of household)
 the economy of nautre (自然的經濟)。
 內容：
 total relationships of the animal both to its inorganic
and its organic environment.
 complex interrelations referred to by Darwin as the
conditions for the struggle for existence.
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
生態學 與 經濟學
Eco-logy and Eco-nomics
 都是Eco (生活) 之學。
 Eco + logy = 生活 + 科學
 Eco + nomics = 生活 + 經營管理。
 生態學 = 「自然的經濟」(Economy
of Nature)
 什麼才是真正的「經濟」？
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
3
生態學
太陽
生態學
與
經濟學
經濟學
人力、漁具、
漁船、能量
海洋生態體系
物質循環
能量循流
捕魚活動
海產市場
圖 8. 海灣區的經濟活動。左半部是傳統生態學的研究領域，右半部
是傳統經濟學的課題。海灣區對人類的實際價值至少是此區生產的
魚獲量價值的10倍。
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
經濟學 vs.生態學
Odum, E. P. and G. W. Barrett (2005) Fundamentals of Ecology.
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
「生態學」的定位( by 1910s)
 1893 J. S. Burdon-Sanderson: President,
British Ass. for Advancement of Science.
 將 Ecology 成為「生物學」中三大部之一。
• ecology, physiology and morphology
 生態學 => philosophy of living nature.
 1900s Clements & Cowles → plant ecology
 生態學 = 生理學
 1910s Adam (1917) & Elton (1927) → animal ecologists
 生態學= new natural history (Adam, 1917)
= scientific natural history (Elton, 1927)
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
「生態學」的定位( by 1950s)
 1949 Allee et al. principles of
animal ecology
 =>lack of knowledge of ecology among
scholars and philosophers
• 1. 由於內在的多元性 → 廣泛 distortion of 內容
• 2. 缺乏 historical studies
 Kuhn (1970) a developing scientific
discipline
==> fusion of several separate trunks
lacking a common initial rootstock.
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
「生態學」的定位( 1960-80s)
 1961 Andrewartha
生態學 = 生物的分佈和豐富量之研究。
 1963 Odum, E.
 生態學 = 自然的結構和功能之研究。
 1980s Odum, E. (1983)
生態學 = 自然科學和社會科學的橋樑。
Leo Smith, R. (1986)
生態學 =「生物與其生活環境」的互動關係之研究。
生態學 = 自然的經濟學
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
「生態學」的定位( 1990s)
 Stiling, P.D. (1992)
 生態學包含以下五部份：
演化生態+行為生態+族群生態+群落生態+應用生態
 Leo Smith, R. (1992) 生態學 =
主要兩個根源：植物地理學 和 自然歷史學
 Colinvaux, P. (1993)
 生態學 =the Science of the universe
• 1. 体系的龐雜和歧異之維持和來源之瞭解
• 2. 生物一起生活的原則
• 3. 生命如何受天擇影響
• 4. 自然的經濟學
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
「生態學」的定位( 1990s)
 Odum, E. (1993)
 生態學 = 生命與維生環境之關係。
Krebs, C. J. (1994)
 生態學 = 決定「生物的分佈和豐富量」之互
動的研究。
Where, How many, Why
Brewer, R. (1994)
 生態學 =
「生物與其生活環境」的互動關係之研究。
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
「生態學」的定位( by 2000)
Stiling, P. D. (1996) 生態學 =
生物和生物與其生活環境間的互動關係。
Ricklefs, R. E. (1997)
 生態學 = 自然的經濟。
Smith and Smith (1998)
 生態學 = 自然的經濟。
Ricklefs and Miller (2000)
 生態學 = 研習 自然世界的 次序 (order)。
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
生態學發展史 (一)
 1970s Conservation + Landscape + Restoration
 1960s Ecology 逐漸被認為是重要「科學」。
 1950s 各自發展屬於自己領域的「人類生態學」。
 1940s
 1930s
Social ecology + Cultural ecology
 1920s 生態學的理論基礎
 1910s Animal Ecology + Human Ecology
 1900s Ecology 成為「生物學」中三大部之一。
 1866 Haeckel, Ernst : 第一個使用 Ecology
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
生態學發展史 (二)
 2000s Business Ecology + Information
Ecology + Knowledge Ecology + 大學系所
(doctoral degree)
 1990s Journal of Industrial Ecology + Ecoefficiency (生態效率)
 1980s Eco-Industrial park + Deep Ecology +
Spiritual Ecology + Radical ecology + Ecoethics
 1970s Industrial Ecology + Conservation +
Landscape + Restoration + EIA
 1960s Ecology 才逐漸被認為是重要的「科學」。
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
現代生態學的類別
 生物: Bird Ecology, Lizard Ecology, Plant Ecology,
Fish Ecology
 演化: Population Genetics, Evolutionary Ecology
 理論: Theoretical Ecology, System Ecology,
Ecosystem Ecology, Physiological Ecology,
Behavioral Ecology
 環境: Environmental Conservation, Conservation
Biology, Landscape Ecology, Geographical Ecology
 社會: Social Ecology, Human Ecology, Ecological
Impact Assessment,
 事業：Business Ecology, Industrial Ecology,
Information Ecology
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
新世紀的生態學
多元途徑：




人類生態學 (Human Ecology)
生態經濟學 (Ecological Economics)
工業生態學 (Industrial ecology)
事業生態學 (Business Ecology)
 資訊生態學 (Information Ecology)
 藍海策略 (Blue ocean strategy)
 美學的經濟 (the economy of Aesthetics)
 生物模擬 (仿生學) (Biomimicry)
 自然之道 (The Natural Step)
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
生態科學與技術的發展
學術發展：智價革命
人類生態學：自然與人文的對話、互動與整合
復育生態學：都會區生活圈的物種復育
事業生態學：事業生態價值化
工業生態學：工業生態程序化
生物模擬 (Bio-mimicry)：向自然學習
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Ayo 2011 Ecology
問題與討論
Ayo NUTN website:
http://myweb.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/