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English Literature of the Renaissance D. Mohammed Nour al-Naimi جامعة الملك فيصل عمادة التعلم اإللكتروني والتعليم عن بعد عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد 1 Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ 1 ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Lecture 1 عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ 2 ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Renaissance نهضة Renaissance, the great flowering ازدهارof artفن, architecturetk فن العمارة, Politicsالسياسة, and the study of literatureاالدب, usually seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern world, which came about under the influence تاثيرof Greek اغريقي او يونانيand Roman modelsنسخ. It began in Italy in the late 14th cent., culminated توجتin the High Renaissance in the early 16th cent, (the period دور اوفترةof *Michelangelo and *Machiavelli), and spread انتشرto the rest of Europe الى بقية اورباin the 15th cent, and afterwardsبعد ذلك. Its emphasis تشديد او توكيدwas humanistانساني: that is, on regarding فيما يتعلقthe human figure شخصية االنسانand reason سببwithout a necessary relating المتعلقةof it to the superhuman ;وفوق طاقة البشرbut much of its energy also came from the *Neoplatonic االفالطونية الحديثةtradition التقليدin writers الكتابsuch as *Pico della Mirandola. The word Renaissance has been applied in the 20th cent, to earlier periods which manifestedتجليa new interest مصلحةin and study of the classics, such as the 12th cent, and the period of Charlemagne تشارل مان. But the Italian Renaissance is still seen as a watershed تقطة تحولin the development of civilizationحضارة, both because of its extent مدىand because of its emphasis تشديدon the human, whether سواءindependent of مستقلةor in association جمعيةwith the divineالهي. See J. A. Symonds, History of the Renaissance in Italy (1875-86); W. Pater, Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873); J. Burckhardt, Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (English trans., S. الملك G. C. Middlemore, بعدThe والتعلم عن حضارةاإلكتروني عمادة التعليم فيصل جامعة [ ] 1929). Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education King Faisal University This course provides a concise introduction to the literature ادبof Elizabethan and Stuart England (1558–1649). It is aimed تهدفchiefly خصوصاat undergraduate students الطالب الجامعينtaking courses on sixteenth and seventeenth-century English literature, but will hopefully املbe useful, too, for taught تدرسpostgraduates الدراسات العلياlooking to refresh or consolidate دمج اوتثبيتtheir knowledge of the period’s literature, and lecturers preparing or teaching Renaissance courses. The beginnings of what we now describe as ‘Renaissance’ or ‘Early Modern’ English literature precede تسبقthe accession االنضمامof Elizabeth I (1558), but Renaissance literary ادبيculture only became firmly established انشاتin England in the second half of the sixteenth century. Similarly, while the literature produced انتجbetween 1649 and the Restoration استعادةof the Monarchy (1660) could be said to belong تميto the Renaissance, the unusual historical context in which it was produced marks the Interregnum فترة خلو العرشas a distinctive مميزliterary eraعصر ادبي. This is why this book بعد اإلكتروني والتعلم عن جامعةseventeenth concentrates onالتعليم theعمادة literature of[ the] late sixteenth فيصل andالملك early Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education King Faisal University Renaissance Definition: The period in European history that marked the end of the Middle Ages. It began in Italy in the late fourteenth century. In broad termsمصطلحات واسعة, it is usually seen as spanning تمتدthe fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, although it did not reach Great Britain, for example, until the 1480s or so. The Renaissance saw an awakening ايقاضin almost every sphere of human activityنشاط, especially science and philosophy فلسفةand the arts. The period is best defined by the emergence ضهورof a general philosophy that emphasized وشددthe importance of the intellectعقل, the individual and world affairsشؤون. It contrasts التناقضاتstrongly with the medieval القرون الوسطى worldview, characterized تميزby the dominantمهيمن concerns المخاوفof faithااليمان, the socialاجتماعي, collective جماعيand spiritual روحيsalvationخالص. Prominent بارزwriters during the Renaissance include Niccolo Machiavelli and Baldassare Castiglione in Italy, Miguel de Cervantes and Lope de Vega in Spain, Jean Froissart and Francois Rabelais in France, Sir Thomas More and Sir Philip Sidney in England and Desiderius Erasmus in Holland. عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Renaissance The beginnings of what we now describe as ‘Renaissance’ or ‘Early Modern’ English literature precedeتسبق the accession انضمامof Elizabeth I (1558), but Renaissance literary culture only became firmlyبحزم established in England in the second half of the sixteenth century. Similarly, while the literature produced between 1649 and the Restoration استعادةof the Monarchy (1660) could be said to belong to the Renaissance, the unusual historical context السياقin which it was produced marks the Interregnum فترة خلو العرشas a distinctive مميزliterary era. This is why this book concentrates on مركزات علىthe literature of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The beginnings of what we now describe as ‘Renaissance’ or ‘Early Modern’ English literature precede the accession انضمامof Elizabeth I (1558), but Renaissance literary culture only became firmly established راسخةin England in the second half of the sixteenth century. Similarly, while the literature produced between 1649 and the Restoration of the Monarchy (1660) could be said to belong to the Renaissance, the unusual historical context in which it was produced marks the Interregnum as a distinctive مميزliterary era. This is why this book concentrates on the literature of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Following chapters focus on the major literary genres: drama, poetry and prose. عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University This centuryهذا القرن, like a golden age, has restored استعادةto light the liberal الليبراليةarts . . . achieving تحقيقwhat had been honoured تكريمamong بينthe ancientsالقدماء, but almost forgotten since. (Marsilio Ficino, 1482) THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT:السياق التاريخي The ‘Renaissance’ (meaning ‘rebirth )’والدة جديدةdescribes the movement which saw renewed European interest الفائدةin classical culture between the late fourteenth and mid-seventeenth centuries. Having initially البدايةsought to سعىemulate محاكاةthe achievements انجازاتof the Greek and Roman empiresامبراطوريلت, Renaissance scholars العلماءand artists later sought to out-do their ancient قديمpredecessorsاسالف, and therefore engaged تصدت لهاin fresh intellectual and artistic exploration.العذوبة في التنقيب الفكري والفني The origins االصولof the ‘Renaissance’ have been hotly debated نقاش ساخنbut most scholars العلماءagree that it originated نشاتin late fourteenth-century Italy, where it was fostered عززتby a new generation جيلof humanist scholars. Its influence was gradually felt شعرall across Europe, reaching England by the early sixteenth century. عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University The specific معينterm‘ شعرRenaissance’ (or rinascita )والدة جديدة كلمة ايطاليةwas first used by Italian art historian تاريخيGiorgio Vasari in his Lives of the Most Eminent بارزPainters(الرسامين1550) to describe the achievements انجازاتof recent االخيرةartists; achievements he saw as marking a revival احياءin the arts, after a period of long decayاضمحالل following the fall of the Roman Empire. Hبعد سقوط االمرطورية الرومانية امراطوريةNot until the nineteenth century was the term used more broadly to describe the period and culture of early modern Europe (1500–1700); and only in the twentieth century did the term come to be a standard label التسمية القياسيةfor the era. Some modern scholars have questioned شكthe use of the term ‘Renaissance’, arguing مجادلةthat it overstates يبالغthe break with the past and downplays تقللMedieval من القرون الوسطىknowledge of classical learning. Such scholars often prefer to describe the period as ‘early modern’; but this label has its drawbacksعيوب, too, potentially يحتملoveremphasising التاكيد المبالغthe similarities between Renaissance and modern culture. The more traditional term ‘Renaissance’ is favoured يحبذfor the title of this guide, but appears يبدوalongside يبدو جنبا الى جنبthe phrase ‘early modern’ in the text. Although Elizabethan and Stuart writers did not refer to their era as the ‘Renaissance’ it was a conceptمفهومthey understood, and highlights يسلط الضوءthe fact that it was an era of new advances in European knowledge, akin قريبto those associated يرتبطwith the great classical civilisations.حضارات عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Religion :دين Religion was central to life in Renaissance England. Officially, everyone was Christianمسيحي. In such a culture religion was not simply an ideology it was a way of life, and to write about any aspect of life was almost inevitably حتماto touch on religion. The importance of Christianity in early Renaissance Europe was reinforced by the strength of the Catholic Church( كنيسةled by the Pope)بقيادة البابا. In 1500 all the major Western European states and their people belonged to it; but there had long been discontent within the Catholic community مجتمعabout perceived المتصورةclerical الكتبةcorruption.فساد In 1517 … Martin Luther (an ex-monk), nailed ninety-five theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg that questioned the authority and doctrines المذاهبof the Catholic Church Luther and his fellow campaigners الحمالتsought سعىthe reformation االصالحof the Church from withinضمن, but, faced with intransigenceعناد, criticism انتقادsoon hardened into opposition معارضةand the reformers المصلحينcame to believe that the only way to reestablish اعادة تاسيسGod’s ‘true’ church was to break away and found their own ‘Protestant’ Church. This movement became known as the Protestant. Reformationاصالح At first Protestantism was a fringe religion هامش الدينbut it grew in power as a number of Northern European states became Protestant. عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Henry VIII (1509–47) declared اعلنhimself ‘Supreme Head’ الرئيس االعلىof the Church of England. Henry’s reasons for challenging التحديthe authority of the Pope and the Catholic Church were political سياسيand personal, rather باالحرىthan doctrinalمذهبي. Little more than a decade )سنوات10( عقدearlier the Pope had awarded him the title of Defender of the Faith ايمان او ثقةafter he attacked Luther’s views (1521); but by 1527 Henry was considering divorcing طالقhis first wife, Catherine of Aragon, so that he might marry Anne Boleyn. Given the reasons behind Henry’s conflict صراعwith Rome, it is perhaps not surprising مفاجئthat the English Church did not alter substantially جوهرياduring his reign ملك. James did not grant منحCatholics greater tolerance تسامح, as some Puritans المتشددونhad feared خشيhe might, and encouraged شجعthe preparation االعدادof a new English translation of the Bible (من الكتاب المقدسpublished in 1611 as the influential سلطةKing James Authorised Bible). Such would-be reformers المصلحينcame to be known as ‘Puritans’ المتشددونbecause of their desire رغبةto further ‘مزيدpurify’ تنقية وطهرthe Church and their favouring of an ascetic زاهدreligious culture. عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Western Europeans were generally Christian مسيحيbut recognised اعترفتthe existence الوجودof at least two other religions: Judaism اليهوديةand Islam. The followers of both faiths االديانare conventionally تقليدياstigmatised in the period’s literature وصم في االدب في تلك اللحظة. Jews اليهودare associated يرتبطونwith avarice جشعand usury االربا, while Islamic figures شخصياتare stereotyped في قالب نمطيas barbaric همجي, untrustworthy غير موثوق به, lustful pagansشهوانية الوثنين. Yet most English people would have had little knowledge of either religion. This was especially true of Islam. Although Christians were accustomed معتادto regard الصدIslam as a false زائفfaithايمان, most had to rely االعتمادon second-hand accounts for their knowledge of it because the only Europeans who had much contact اتصالwith the Islamic East were traders التجارand diplomats. Opposition to معارضةIslam and the countries associated يرتبطwith it was deep-rooted عميق الجذور, finding its origins اصولin the Medieval في العصور الوسطىCrusades الحروب الصليبيةto recover the Holy Land from the Muslims, but Western antipathy كراهيةwas fuelled in the sixteenth century by the growing power of the Ottoman (or Turkish) Empire امراطوريةand its extension westwards with the Turks laying ‘claim مطالبةto pivotal لمحوريterritory اقليمin the eastern Mediterranean البحر االبيض المتوسطand North Africa, including Cyprus in 1571 and Tunis in 1 574’.3 Such was the perceived threat that the Spanish, the Venetians البندقيةand the Pope formed شكلتa league دوريto fight against the Turks, famously defeating themهزيمةin the Battle of Lepanto (1 571). عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University The Jews اليهودhad long been persecuted اضطهادin Europe but were a more familiar religious minority اقليةthan Muslims, living within (as well as beyond )فضال عن بعدهEurope. Jews were expelled طردfrom England in 1290 but returned in small numbers during subsequent الحقcenturiesقرون. By the late sixteenth century there were small Jewish ommunities in London and Bristol, although those involved were obliged to ملزمةconform تتدفقoutwardly ضاهرياto Protestantism, both because other religions were not tolerated التسامحand because of the strength of contemporary معاصرanti-Jewish feeling. Such antipathy كراهيةhad a long history: the association الرابطةof the Jews with the death of Jesus يسوعand with money lending (which the Bible الكتاب المقدس condemned )ادانhad long encouraged تشجيعEuropean Christians to look down on the Jews as an ungodly الفجارsectطائفة, while their status as an ‘alien ’اجنبي, homeless مشردpeople made them a perennial المعمرobject of suspicionاشتباه. The curiosity فضولand anxiety قلقaroused اثارby religious and cultural ‘aliens’ in the period is reflected in the ambivalent متناقضrepresentation تمثيلof Jews in late sixteenth-century plays such as Christopher Marlowe’s The Jew of Malta and Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice.Ghubeer عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Magic : السحر In Renaissance Europe faith in Christianity co-existed تعايشwith a widespread انتشار واسعbelief in magic. Even monarchs حتى الملوكand religious leaders took magic seriously. Elizabeth I famously consulted استشارة contemporary معاصرmagus John Dee for advice about the most auspiciousميمون date for her coronationالموعد الميمون لتتويجها, while her successor, James في حين خليفها جمسI participated شاركتin a series of witchcraft سحرtrials محاكماتand published his own study of the subject, Demonology( الشياطين1597). The extentمدى of popular شعبيinterest الفائدةin magic is reflected in the proliferation تكاثرof texts about magic in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. In England such literature included non-fiction غير روائيةbooks about witchcraft, accounts of witchcraft trialsمحاكمات السحر الحرفية, and a large body of poemsقصائد, plays and prose romances نثر الرومنسياتfeaturing ويتميزmagicians and witchesالساحرات. Such literature appears يبدوto have proved اثبتتespecially popular شعبيin the Jacobean periodفترة يعقوبيان, when the accession انضمامof James I generated fresh interest in the subject. One of the best known examples of Jacobean ‘witchcraft’ literature, William Shakespeare’s Macbeth (performed c. 1606) (which features مالمحa chorus مجموعة من المنشدينof witches who predict the future) is thought to have been written to cater تلبيةfor this fashion.موضة عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University Perceptions التصوراتof what constituted شكلتmagic varied. متنوعةSome contemporaries المعاصرونdistinguished الموقرbetween ‘black’ and ‘white’ magic, categorizing تصنيفmagic used to hurt or injure people, animals or property ممتلكاتas ‘black’ and magic used to help or heal شفاءas ‘white’. Contemporaries, likewise كذالكdistinguished الموقرbetween different types of magician, such as witches, magiالمجوس, and cunning مكرmen and women. Witches were generally understood to be people ‘who either by open or secret league الدوري السري, wittingly بذكاءand willinglyعن طيب خاطر, consenteth to [give help] and assistance … in the working of wonders ;’عجائبwhile a magus was believed to be a ‘great magician who by dint جهدof deep learning, ascetic زاهدdiscipline, and patient skill could command امرthe secret forces of the natural and supernatural خارقworld’ (like Shakespeare’s Prospero). Far humbler تواضعاwas the figure of the ‘cunning ’مكرman or woman, who was believed to possess تملكknowledge that allowed him or her to healشفاء animals and people. Some contemporaries, including James I, condemned ادانall kinds of magic as demonic, شيطانيbut anecdotal القصصيةevidence دليلsuggests that others were not opposed عارضto those who practiced ‘white’ magic; and the witchcraft laws, first introduced in the sixteenth century, focused on those who practiced ‘black’ magic’ Ghubeer عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University بحمد هللا عمادة التعليم اإلكتروني والتعلم عن بعد Deanship of E-Learning and Distance Education [ ] جامعة الملك فيصل King Faisal University
