Download State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000-1300

CHAPTER 9
State and Church in the High Middle Ages,
1000–1300
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, students should be able to discuss the factors that enabled
medieval rulers to create larger and more stable territories. Students should also be able to describe the
development of new governmental institutions. They should be able to assess the role of law in the
development of national states. They should also be able to sketch papal efforts at church reform and
the responses of powerful secular leaders to such reform efforts. They should be able to discuss the
impact of the Crusades on developments in Europe. Finally, students should be able to assess the effects
of the expansion of Christianity into northern and eastern Europe.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
Political Revival
A. Medieval Origins of the Modern State
1. The solutions medieval rulers found to their common problems laid the foundations for
modern national states.
2. The modern state is an organized territory with definite geographical boundaries, a
body of law, institutions of government, and a loyal population.
B. England
1. Under Viking pressure Alfred, King of Wessex, united the Anglo-Saxons under his
rule. Royal law replaced diverse local customs.
2. After the Viking conquest of England, Canute ruled as king (1016–1035) and pursued
a policy of reconciliation between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings.
3. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy defeated Harold and became king of England.
4. William retained Anglo-Saxon institutions that served his purposes, while introducing
a number of important innovations.
5. Henry II’s marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152 created a large, but loosely knit,
empire.
C. France
1. In 987, Hugh Capet was crowned king of the West Franks. This marked the beginning
of the Capetian dynasty.
2. The Capetian kings of France were weak and had jurisdiction over a small area.
3. Philip II (r. 1180–1223) vastly enlarged the territory of the kingdom of France.
4. By the end of the thirteenth century, most of the provinces of modern France had been
added to the royal domain.
D. Central Europe
1. King Otto I (r. 936–973), ruler of the Middle Frankish kingdom, laid the groundwork
for the Holy Roman Empire.
2. Throughout most of the twelfth century, Germany was wracked by civil war.
3. Frederick Barbarossa (r. 1152–1190) tried to bring peace to the empire.
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Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000-1300
4.
59
His policies greatly expanded the size of the Holy Roman Empire, but it remained a
loose collection of various types of government.
E. The Iberian Peninsula
1. In the eleventh century, divisions and civil war in the caliphate of Córdoba allowed
Christian armies to conquer an increasingly large part of the Iberian Peninsula.
2. The Aloravid dynasty briefly re-unified the Muslim state in the late eleventh century,
but they were themselves conquered by forces of the Almohad dynasty.
3. The Almodhad’s were, in turn, crushed by Christian forces led by Alfonso VIII (1158–
1214)
4. In 1236 Córdoba fell to Ferdinand of Castile and León.
5. After 1248, Christians controlled all of the Iberian Peninsula except the small state of
Granada.
6. Victorious Christian rulers expelled Muslims from Iberian cities and encouraged
Christian immigrants to take their place.
7. Fourteenth-century clerical propagandists called the movement to expel the Muslims
the reconquista.
II. Finance
A. England
1. Henry I (r. 1100–1135) established a bureau of finance called the Exchequer.
2. The Exchequer kept careful records of monies paid into and out of the royal treasury.
B. France
1. In general, royal financial agencies were less developed on the continent than those in
England.
2. In the twelfth century, French rulers derived their income from their royal estates.
3. In the thirteenth century, French rulers acquired some income from the church and
from towns.
4. Medieval people believed that taxation should only be used in emergency situations
like war.
C. Sicily
1. Sicily developed a strong financial bureaucracy.
2. Roger de Hautville conquered Sicily and introduced Norman institutions, modified
with Arabic and Greek governmental devices.
3. He retained the diwan, a sophisticated Muslim administrative institution.
4. His son, Roger II, forged ties with the Fatimid rulers of Egypt.
5. Arabic influence was evident in many aspects of Roger II’s rule.
D. Frederick II
1. Frederick II (r. 1212–1250) became Holy Roman emperor in 1220.
2. Frederick took a number of steps to centralize the institutions of Sicily, including the
founding of the University of Naples in 1224.
3. He paid little attention to the northern part of the Holy Roman Empire and his policies
weakened imperial power in Germany.
III. Law and Justice
A. France and the Holy Roman Empire
1. Louis IX (r. 1226–1270) created a royal judicial system.
2. He was the first French monarch to publish laws for the entire kingdom.
3. In the Holy Roman Empire, justice was administered at two levels: the manorial or
seigniorial court, and the regional magistracies.
B. Henry II and Thomas Becket
1. Under Henry II (r. 1154–1189), England developed and extended common law.
2. Henry also improved procedure in criminal law.
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60
Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000–1300
Thomas Becket resisted Henry’s efforts to bring clergy under the jurisdiction of royal
courts.
4. In 1170, Becket was murdered by four knights loyal to Henry. Public reaction to this
murder forced Henry to back down.
C. King John and Magna Carta
1. Henry II’s sons, Richard I (r. 1189–1199) and John (r. 1199–1216), did not inherit their
father’s interest in government.
2. John’s aggressive efforts to raise royal revenue alienated important elements of the
English population.
3. Military defeats further weakened him and he was forced to approve a peace treaty
called Magna Carta.
4. Magna Carta came to signify the principle that everyone, including the king, must obey
the law.
5. In the thirteenth century, the judicial precedents set under Henry II evolved into
permanent institutions.
D. Common Law and Roman Law
1. English common law developed features that were very different from the system of
Roman law that operated in continental Europe.
2. Common law relied on precedent, while Roman law relied on fixed legal maxims.
3. The extension of law and justice led to a great deal of legal codification across Europe.
E. The Peace of God
1. Along with the courts, the church worked to promote peace.
2. At a series of church councils in central France, bishops established peace associations.
3. The councils also published decrees forbidding attacks on innocent people and
prohibiting the destruction of crops and unfortified places.
4. The Truce of God, an effort to limit the number of days on which warfare was
permitted, was less effective.
IV. The Papacy
A. The Gregorian Reforms
1. Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) was the most prominent advocate of the papal reform
movement begun under Pope Leo IX (1049–1054).
2. Leo and his successors believed that lay control was largely responsible for the
church’s problems and took steps to assert church independence.
3. The College of Cardinals was established at the Lateran Synod of 1059 to make papal
elections independent of imperial influences and Roman aristocratic factions.
4. Gregory was strongly opposed to lay investiture.
5. In February 1075 Pope Gregory held a council at Rome that condemned priestly
marriage, simony, and lay investiture.
6. Lay investiture angered kings because they relied on the literate monks and priests,
paid by the church, to be their administrators. Lay investiture threatened this easy and
(for the kings) inexpensive procedure.
7. The struggle over lay investiture emphasized the distinction between priests and
laypeople.
8. Female monasticism took on a secondary status.
B. Emperor versus Pope
1. As a result, Gregory ended up in a confrontation with German emperor Henry IV.
Conflict between emperors and Popes continued until 1122 when it was agreed that the
church would invest bishops, but the emperor could exercise a veto over appointments.
2. As part of the controversy, the popes supported German nobles against the emperors.
As a result the nobles emerged stronger vis-à-vis their sovereign than elsewhere in
Western Europe.
3.
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Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000-1300
C.
V.
61
The Papal Curia
1. Popes after Gregory continued to strengthen and reorganize their administrative
bureaucracy and courtthe curia. The curia became the final court of appeal for
Catholic Europe.
2. The curia functioned at first as an effective instrument of reform. The frequency of
clerical marriage, simony, and violence all declined, and the Pope’s power reached its
apogee.
D. Innocent III and his Successors
1. Innocent III (1198–1216) was the most powerful pope in history.
2. Under his leadership, the papacy imposed its will on secular leaders and declared its
responsibility for all citizens of Christendom.
3. The Latern Council of 1215 affirmed the power and reach of the church.
4. The seeds for future problems were sown, however, as the papal bureaucracy increased
in size as well as in expense. Popes also began using military force to maintain their
leadership.
The Crusades
A. Holy War
1. Crusades were holy wars sponsored by the papacy and fought by European nobles to
recover the Holy Land from the Muslims.
2. The Church took a new, more positive stance toward the military class.
3. The papacy had supported the holy war against Muslim rule in Spain.
B. Background
1. The first crusade to the Holy Land was motivated by the following:
a) The Pope’s desire to increase his strength vis-à-vis the German emperor.
b) The hope that a Latin presence in the East would heal the recent schism with the
Orthodox Church.
c) The Byzantine Emperor’s call for aid following Byzantine defeat by Seljuk Turks
at the Battle of Manzikert (1071).
2. In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a Christian holy war against the Muslims.
C. Motives and Course of the Crusades
1. Religious conviction inspired many Crusaders.
2. Some were motivated by the chance for travel and adventure.
3. Kings were given an opportunity to get rid of troublesome knights and younger sons
hoped to gain fiefs in the Middle East.
4. Most crusaders were French, but participants came from all over Europe.
5. The First Crusade exacerbated Christian hatred of Jews in western Europe and led to
attacks against them.
6. In 1099 the crusaders captured Jerusalem and set up feudal kingdoms in the area.
7. The pope approved eight expeditions to the East between 1096 and 1270.
8. Women from all walks of life participated in the Crusades.
D. Crusades within Europe
1. In 1208, Pope Innocent III proclaimed a crusade against a group in southern France
known as the Cathars or the Albigensians.
2. The Albigensians asserted that the material world was created by an evil God of the
Old Testament.
3. In the 1230s and 1240s, the papacy established the papal Inquisition to seek out
suspected heretics.
4. The pope promoted crusades against Emperor Frederick II in 1237 and 1239.
5. The Crusades also inspired the establishment of new religious orders, such as the
Knights Templars and the Teutonic Knights.
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62
Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000–1300
E.
Consequences of the Crusades
1. The Crusades did not stimulate trade with the East, which was already extensive before
they began.
2. They created bitterness and intolerance among Christians, Muslims, and Jews.
3. The crusades were the first great colonizing movement out of Europe and they shaped
later colonizing movements, such as those of Christopher Columbus.
4. Crusaders knew very little about Islam or Muslims. They dehumanized the enemy,
describing Muslims as “filth.” Muslims saw Europeans as “infidels” and “barbarians.”
They interpreted the crusades as imperialistic.
5. The Crusades inaugurated a history of Christian hatred of and violence against Jews.
VI. The Expansion of Christianity
A. Northern Europe
1. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Anglo-Norman knights conquered Scotland and
parts of Ireland, bringing with them feudalism and the Roman diocesan organization.
2. In the Scandinavian and Baltic areas, Latin Christian influence came with diocesan
organizationthe bishops represented Latin culture.
B. Eastern Europe
1. Albert the Bear of Saxony led a German crusade against the West Slavs in 1157. Slavic
revolts were crushed and the area was converted to Christianity by force.
2. Church organization and German settlers followed the knights.
C. Christendom
1. Most often, the term Christendom was used as a loose term for the body of all people
who were Christian.
2. Reforming popes used the term to refer to a unified hierarchy with the papacy at the
top.
3. Kings and emperors resisted this papal notion of Christendom.
LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
1.
“One Law for All.” What led to the development of common law in medieval England? How did
changes in judicial procedure alter the experience of justice for English people? Sources: A.
Murson and W. M. Ormrod, The Evolution of English Justice (1999); J. Hudson, ed., The History
of English Law (1996); J. S. Cockburn and T.A. Green, Twelve Good Men and True: The
Criminal Trial Jury in England (1988).
2.
“What is France?” How did the expansion of royal authority change popular notions of the French
nation, of what it meant to be French? Sources: E. James, The Origins of France: From Clovis to
the Capetians, 500–1000 (1982); E. Hallam, The Capetian Kings of France, 987–1328 (1980).
3.
“A Social History of the Crusades.” What roles did common folk play in the Crusades? How were
women involved? How did the Crusades affect peasant society? Sources: J. Riley-Smith, What
Were the Crusades? (1977); R. C. Finucane, Soldiers of the Faith: Crusaders and Moslems at
War (1983); K. M. Setton, ed., A History of the Crusades (1955–1977).
USING PRIMARY SOURCES
Read William of Tyre’s account of the founding of the order of the Knights Templar
(http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/tyre-templars.html). In his view, why was the order founded?
Why did it prosper? Why did it fall away from its original purpose? What does this document tell us
about medieval attitudes towards religion and religious orders?
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Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000-1300
63
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
I.
Classroom Discussion Suggestions
A. What was the impact of the incident at Canossa between Gregory VII and Henry IV?
B. How did weather and climate affect European society in the High Middle Ages?
C. What accounted for the success of the Christians in the early Crusades?
D. How would modem Islamic historians interpret the Crusades?
E. What social and economic effects did the Crusades have on Western civilization?
F. What forces led to the development of common law in England? Who benefited the most
from the centralization of justice?
G. Why were royal finances so important to the expansion of royal power? What steps did local
elites take to resist the growing power of kings?
II. Doing History
A. Have students pretend to be knights, kings, priests, monks, nuns, or peasants on the
Crusades and compose letters to send home to their family and friends describing the people
and places in the Holy Land. Sources: R. C. Finucane, Soldiers of the Faith: Crusaders and
Moslems at War (1983); R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare (1957); S. Runciman, A History of
the Crusades, 3 vols. (1955); D. Oueller, The Conquest of Constantinople (1970).
B. What was life in a monastery in the High Middle Ages like? How did reality differ from the
monastic ideal of Benedict of Nursia’s Rule for Monasteries? Have students research and
give a short presentation on this topic. Sources: A. Boyd, The Monks of Durham (1975); B.
Rosenwein, Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century (1982); B. D. Hill, English
Cistercian Monasteries and Their Patrons in the Twelfth Century (1968).
C. Have students brainstorm a list of symbols that were significant in the Middle Ages. After
deciding on a list, have them consult G. Ferguson, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art
(1975) to get a better understanding of the meaning and significance of symbols in medieval
life.
III. Cooperative Learning Activities
A. Have one team of six students research the significance of the investiture controversy. After
the research is completed, have the team make a presentation to the class, outlining the
significant persons, details, and outcomes of this important area of medieval history.
B. Organize the class into four teams. Each team is charged with learning about one of the first
four crusades. Then, each team should create an itinerary that includes descriptions of places
that were observed on their route from Europe to the Holy Land.
MAP ACTIVITY
1.
Consulting the map in the text, list the following places on an outline map of Europe and the
Mediterranean world.
a.
Alexandria
b.
Damietta
c.
Jerusalem
d.
Acre
e.
Damascus
f.
Tripoli
g.
Tunis
h.
Antioch
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64
2.
Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000–1300
i.
Edessa
j.
Manzikert
k.
Constantinople
l.
Nicaea
m.
Taranto
n.
Rome
o.
Genoa
p.
Venice
q.
Toulouse
r.
Marseilles
s.
Paris
t.
Vienna
u.
Metz
v.
Lisbon
w.
Clermont
Using Map 9.1 (The Growth of the Kingdom of France) as a reference, answer the following
questions.
a.
What were the most important obstacles to the growth of royal authority? How did the kings
of France overcome them?
b.
What role did conquest play in the growth of royal power?
c.
Did the people under the rule of the King of France consider themselves to be “French”?
Why or why not?
AUDIOVISUAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Vikings and Normans. (37 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)
2.
The Vikings. (116 min. Color. Films, Ltd.)
3.
The Middle Ages: The Culture of Medieval Europe. (24 min. Color. Encyclopedia Britannica
Films.)
4.
The Crusades: 1095–1291. (16 min. Color. Centron Educational Films.)
5.
The Warlord. (100 min. Color. Films, Ltd.)
6.
The Vatican: Fortress of Christianity. (Videodisc. Color. 29 min. Films for the Humanities and
Sciences.)
7.
The Disputation: A Theological Debate between Christians and Jews. (Videodisc. Color. 65 min.
Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)
8.
Crusades Timeline
(http://www.timelines.info/history/conflict_and_war/medieval_wars_and_conflicts/the_crusad
es/)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000-1300
9.
65
Virtual Moorish Spain (www.sonhex.dk/son.htm)
10. Bayeux Tapestry (www.sjolander.com/viking/museum/bt/bt.htm)
INTERNET RESOURCES
1.
The Islamic Conquest of Spain (www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/conqspain.html)
2.
The Crusades (http://crusades.boisestate.edu/)
3.
Henry II (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_ii_king.shtml)
4.
Medieval Crusades (www.medievalcrusades.com)
5.
The Crusades and the Rise of Islam (www.mrdowling.com/606islam.html)
6.
Primary Sources on the Crusades (www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1k.html)
7.
University of Leeds Electronic Text Center: The Age of Gregory VII
(www.etext.leeds.ac.uk/hist1120gregory)
SUGGESTED READING
For England, R. Bartlett, England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225 (2000), offers an
excellent synthesis of social, cultural, and political history in highly readable prose. Advanced students
will find in M. Strickland, War and Chivalry: The Conduct and Perception of War in England and
Normandy, 1066–1217 (1996), a sophisticated treatment of military history and a detailed study of the
aristocracy that fought. Students interested in almost any aspect of English warfare will find M.
Prestwich, Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience (1996), exciting and
readable. S. Morillo, Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings, 1066–1135 (1994), is also useful. S. D.
Church, ed., King John: New Interpretations (1999), contains useful articles on many topics, including
John’s personality, the English economy, and the English and Norman aristocracies.
Students interested in the evolution of English common law should see the studies by A. Murson and
W. M. Ormrod, The Evolution of English Justice: Law, Politics and Society in the Fourteenth Century
(1999), and J. Hudson, ed., The History of English Law: Centenary Essays on Pollock and Maitland
(1996). Those interested in crime, society, and legal developments will find the following works useful
and sound: J. S. Cockburn and T. A. Green, Twelve Good Men and True: The Criminal Trial Jury in
England, 1200–1800 (1988); J. B. Given, Society and Homicide in Thirteenth-Century England (1977);
and R. C. Palmer, The County Courts of Medieval England, 1150–1350 (1982). E. M. Hallam,
Domesday Book Through Nine Centuries (1986), is an excellent appreciation of that important
document, while J. R. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (1970), is a good synthesis
of political, legal, and administrative developments. The standard study of Magna Carta is J. C. Holt,
Magna Carta, 2d ed. (1992). For the Becket controversy, see F. Barlow, Thomas Becket (1986), and D.
Knowles, Thomas Becket (1970). J. Butler, The Quest for Becket’s Bones (1995), explores the mystery
of the location of the relics of England’s most famous saint in a gripping and illustrated account.
Biographies often provide valuable insight into the issues of a reign through a focus on the king. For
England, see F. Barlow, Edward the Confessor (1970); D. C. Douglas, William the Conqueror (1964);
C. W. Hollister, Henry I (2001); W. L. Warren, Henry II (1973); J. Gillingham, Richard I (1999); and
M. Prestwich, Edward I (1997).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
66
Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000–1300
For France, E. Hallam, The Capetian Kings of France, 987–1328 (1980) and E. James, The Origins of
France: From Clovis to the Capetians, 500–1000 (1982), are readable introductions. Advanced students
of medieval French administrative history should see J. Baldwin, The Government of Philip Augustus:
Foundations of French Royal Power in the Middle Ages (1986); W. C. Jordan, Louis IX and the
Crusade (1979); and J. R. Strayer, The Reign of Philip the Fair (1980).
For central Europe, A. Haverkamp, Medieval Germany, 1056–1273, trans. H. Braun and R. Mortimer
(1992), gives a comprehensive picture. D. Abulaa, Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor (1992), is a
beautifully written study, but T. Van Cleve, The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1972), remains
fundamental. B. Arnold, Count and Bishop in Medieval Germany (1992), is essential for understanding
regional power and diversity; and J. B. Freed, Noble Bondsmen: Ministerial Marriages in the
Archdiocese of Salzburg, 1100–1343 (1995), a fine exploration of the disparity between the social
status of the nobility and their legal status in southeastern Germany. P. Gorecki, Economy, Society and
Lordship in Poland, 1100–1250 (1992), contains helpful material on Germany as well as Poland. For
developments in Sicily, see J. Johns, Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily (2002).
For Spain, C. Lowney, A vanished World: Muslims, Christians and Jews in Medieval Spain (2006)
provides an excellent introduction as does B.F. Reilly, The Medieval Spains (1993). For information on
Christian kingdoms, seeT. F. Ruiz, Crisis and Continuity: Land and Town in Late Medieval Castile
(1994) and T. N. Bisson, The Medieval Crown of Aragon (1991). R. Fletcher, The Quest for El Cid
(1990), provides an excellent introduction to Spanish social and political conditions through a study of
Rodrigo Dias, the eleventh-century soldier of fortune who became the Spanish national hero. O. R.
Constable, Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: The Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula,
900–1500 (1996), surveys Iberian trade and treats the impact of Christian conquest on that trade.
For the papacy and ecclesiastical developments, W. Ullman, A Short History of the Papacy in the
Middle Ages (2003) provides a broad overview, while I. S. Robinson, The Papacy, 1073–1198:
Continuity and Innovation (1990), explores the changing role of the papacy in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries and traces the development of the new model of church government. G. Tellenbach, The
Church in Western Europe from the Tenth to the Twelfth Century (1993), is a very good survey by an
expert on the investiture controversy. K. Schatz, Papal Primacy from its Origins to the Present (1993)
presents a brief overview of arguments for the power of the pope from many centuries, while E. Duffy,
Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (2002) provides an illustrated survey of every pope by an
eminent English Catholic scholar.
For the Crusades, two recent books by Thomas Madden are excellent places to start: T. Madden, The
New Concise History of the Crusades (2005) and Crusades: The Illustrated History (2004). C.
Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (2006) is an enormous yet very readable study of
the whole crusading movement in the Middle East, Spain, and the Baltic from 1095 to 1500. J. RileySmith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading (1986), explores many facets of the First Crusade,
as does T. Asbridge, The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and
Islam (2005). Other important recent works include J. Riley-Smith, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History
of the Crusades (1997), a collection of useful articles, and M. C. Lyons, Saladin: The Politics of the
Holy War (1997), which treats political issues of the Third Crusade. For the Fourth Crusade, see D. E.
Queller, The Fourth Crusade: The Capture of Constantinople (1977) and J. Phillips, The Fourth
Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (2005). H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (1994), studies the
evolution of castle styles, siege techniques, and the defensive technologies of castles in the Middle East.
S. B. Edgington and S. Lambert, eds., Gendering the Crusades, (2002), contains articles that look at
the roles of men and women. For the impact of the Crusades on modern times, see P. Partner, God of
Battles: Holy Wars of Islam and Christianity (1997), K. Armstrong, Holy War: The Crusades and Their
Impact on Today’s World (1991) and C. Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom: Holy War and the
Crusades (2005).
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Chapter 9: State and Church in the High Middle Ages, 1000-1300
67
For the relationship of Christian heresy and the Crusades, see S. O’Shea, The Perfect Heresy: The
Revolutionary Life and Death of the Medieval Cathars (2000), a stimulating journalistic account and J.
Sumption, The Albigensian Crusade (2000), a sensitive and nuanced account with more depth than
O’Shea’s book.
For the Rhineland Jews and many issues related to the Jews and the Crusades, R. Chazan, In the Year
1096: The First Crusade and the Jews (1996) and K. Stow, Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval
Latin Europe (1998). R. I. Moore, The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Power and Deviance in
Western Europe (1990) and D. Nirenberg, Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in
Medieval Europe (1998) are both important works that link persecutions of many types.
For the expansion of Latin Christendom into northern and eastern Europe, see the title by Bartlett cited
in the Notes, L. R. Johnson, Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends (1996) and R. Bartlett and
A. MacKay, eds. Medieval Frontier Societies (1989). S. C. Rowell, Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan
Empire Within East Central Europe, 1295–1345 (1994) examines a society that remained pagan for
many centuries, while P. Gorecki, Economy, Society, and Lordship in Medieval Poland (1992), has
articles on aspects of economic and social life. For Celtic northern Europe, S. Duffy, Ireland in the
Middle Ages (1997), incorporates the latest research; M. Richter, Medieval Ireland: The Enduring
Tradition (1996), concentrates on Irish society; and B. Webster, Medieval Scotland (1997), stresses the
evolution of a distinctly Scottish identity. For Scandinavia, see B. Sawyer and P.H. Sawyer, Medieval
Scandinavia: From Conversion to Reformation, Circa 800–1500 (1993) and V. Etting , Queen
Margrethe I, 1353–1412, and the Founding of the Nordic Union (2004).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.