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Oral Manifestations of
Systemic Disease
A Peer-Reviewed Publication
Written by Jeff Burgess, DDS, MSD
Abstract
Mucosal ulceration, dental disease and other tooth
abnormalities, oral soft tissue tumors, periodontal disease,
bone pathology, and orofacial pain may be directly related
to or confounded by underlying systemic disease. An
understanding of the relationship between systemic disease
and oral pathology is important with respect to establishing
the diagnosis and determining the complexity of subsequent
management. For example, dental caries that is confounded by
nutritional deficiency or psychological problems such as bulimia
or anorexia, or a medical problem that directly or indirectly
(via medication use) causes xerostomia or dry mouth, or a
medical condition that alters the patient’s ability to maintain
appropriate oral hygiene may need to be managed using a
comprehensive strategy that takes into account the underlying
medical issue as well as the dental issues. This course reviews
such problems and their impact on oral conditions.
Publication date: July 2013
Expiration date: June 2016
Educational Objectives:
At the end of this educational activity,
participants will be able to:
1. Discuss the complexity of the relationship
between systemic disease and various oral
conditions.
2. Identify the different oral manifestations
associated with specific systemic diseases.
3. Differentiate between potential systemic
diseases associated with some specific oral
conditions such as ulceration.
4. Have improved diagnostic skills in relation
to the connection between systemic disease
and oral pathology.
Author Profile
Jeff Burgess, DDS, MSD, (Retired) Clinical Assistant
Professor, Department of Oral Medicine, University
of Washington School of Dental Medicine; (Retired)
Attending in Pain Center, University of Washington
Medical Center; (Retired) Private Practice in Hawaii
and Washington; Director, Oral Care Research
Associates. He can be reached at jeffreyaburgess@
hotmail.com .
Author Disclosure
Jeff Burgess, DDS, MSD, has no commercial ties
with the sponsors or providers of the unrestricted
educational grant for this course.
Supplement to PennWell Publications
PennWell designates this activity for 2 Continuing Educational Credits
Dental Board of California: Provider 4527, course registration number CA# 02-4527-13079
“This course meets the Dental Board of California’s requirements for 2 unit of continuing education.”
The PennWell Corporation is designated as an Approved PACE Program Provider by the
Academy of General Dentistry. The formal continuing dental education programs of this
program provider are accepted by the AGD for Fellowship, Mastership and membership
maintenance credit. Approval does not imply acceptance by a state or provincial board of
dentistry or AGD endorsement. The current term of approval extends from (11/1/2011) to
(10/31/2015) Provider ID# 320452.
This educational activity was developed by PennWell’s Dental Group with no commercial support.
This course was written for dentists, dental hygienists and assistants, from novice to skilled.
Educational Methods: This course is a self-instructional journal and web activity.
Provider Disclosure: PennWell does not have a leadership position or a commercial interest in any products or
services discussed or shared in this educational activity nor with the commercial supporter. No manufacturer or
third party has had any input into the development of course content.
Requirements for Successful Completion: To obtain 2 CE credits for this educational activity you must pay the
required fee, review the material, complete the course evaluation and obtain a score of at least 70%.
CE Planner Disclosure: Heather Hodges, CE Coordinator does not have a leadership or commercial interest with
products or services discussed in this educational activity. Heather can be reached at [email protected]
Educational Disclaimer: Completing a single continuing education course does not provide enough information
to result in the participant being an expert in the field related to the course topic. It is a combination of many
educational courses and clinical experience that allows the participant to develop skills and expertise.
Scientific Integrity Statement: Information shared in this CE course is developed from clinical research and
represents the most current information available from evidence based dentistry.
Registration: The cost of this CE course is $49.00 for 2 CE credits.
Cancellation/Refund Policy: Any participant who is not 100% satisfied with this course can request a full
refund by contacting PennWell in writing.
Educational Objectives
At the end of this educational activity, participants will
be able to:
1. Discuss the complexity of the relationship between
systemic disease and various oral conditions.
2. Identify the different oral manifestations associated
with specific systemic diseases.
3. Differentiate between potential systemic diseases
associated with some specific oral conditions such as
ulceration.
4. Have improved diagnostic skills in relation to the connection between systemic disease and oral pathology.
Abstract
Mucosal ulceration, dental disease and other tooth abnormalities, oral soft tissue tumors, periodontal disease,
bone pathology, and orofacial pain may be directly related
to or confounded by underlying systemic disease. An understanding of the relationship between systemic disease
and oral pathology is important with respect to establishing the diagnosis and determining the complexity of
subsequent management. For example, dental caries that
is confounded by nutritional deficiency or psychological
problems such as bulimia or anorexia, or a medical problem that directly or indirectly (via medication use) causes
xerostomia, or a medical condition that alters the patient’s
ability to maintain appropriate oral hygiene may need to
be managed using a comprehensive strategy that takes into
account the underlying medical issue as well as the dental
issues. This course reviews such problems and their impact
on oral conditions.
Introduction
Numerous orofacial conditions are associated with systemic disease. The most serious problems of concern to dental
professionals include caries, oral ulcers, mucosal erythema
and sloughing, gingival bleeding and hypertrophy, soft tissue exophytic masses, dry mouth, facial pain, movement
disorders, tooth abnormalities, abnormal dental wear,
tooth/mucosal discoloration, developmental and bone
pathology. This review focuses on the systemic conditions
that may cause or contribute to the above oral problems.
Caries
Dental caries may be caused or aggravated by a number
of systemic diseases via their impact on the three primary
factors that are thought to contribute to dental caries: the
presence of bacteria and biofilm known to cause caries, the
availability of a consistent food source (e.g. sugar) for these
bacteria, and oral hygiene. Other factors such as genetics
(e.g. tooth development, matrix metalloproteinases) and
the use of medications in the treatment of systemic disease
(e.g. affect on salivation) may also play a role in the development of caries.
A very complex relationship exists between these factors
with respect to caries initiation in both primary and adult
teeth. It is known that any perturbation of the oral environment can increase the potential for the development of dental
caries. For example, in a study on the relationship between
dental caries and nutritional status, snack foods, and the
consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in schoolchildren in Thailand, it was found that malnutrition as well as
food intake habits at bedtime were significantly related to
the development of dental caries in the primary dentition.1
In addition to malnutrition, other conditions impacting
diet are also cited in the literature as associated with the
development of caries. These include medical (e.g. diabetes)
and psychological (e.g. drug abuse, bulimia, etc.) problems.
The following subsections detail some of the specific systemic problems that are suspected of impacting the development of caries.
Diabetes
In animal models, a number of studies suggest that rapid
progressive caries is associated with chemically induced
hyperglycemia.2,3 In contrast to the animal studies, at
least one systematic review of the literature questions the
scientific validity of a causative link between caries and
diabetes in humans.4 The authors of this review suggest that
because multiple studies report variable caries experiences
between subjects with and without diabetes (e.g. increased,
decreased, and similar experiences), that the evidence is, at
present, insufficient to determine if a true risk-relationship
actually exists in humans.
Drug Abuse
Multiple studies have linked the abuse of drugs to the development of dental caries.5-8 The problem has been identified
in many countries throughout the world.9-12
One of the drugs that has been most recently studied in
relation to caries is methamphetamine.13 The street description of ‘meth mouth’ is not without merit as this particular
drug and its abuse appears to be associated with considerable
tooth decay as well as other oral problems such as periodontal disease. Some evidence suggests that salivary pH may be
the reason the drug contributes to dental caries.14
The abuse of narcotics and alcohol has also been associated with an increased risk of caries. However, in at least one
comparative study, alcohol abuse was less likely than ‘drug’
abuse to lead to the development of caries. The combination
of alcohol and drug abuse (which included self-reported use
of not only heroin and methadone but also cannabis, benzodiazepines, and cocaine) led to the greatest caries risk (38%
increased risk).15
The authors of this study speculate that the lower rate
in persons abusing alcohol, and particularly those that drink
beer may be related to the effect of increased fluoride consumption which is an ingredient in beer.
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The caries risk from narcotics is not just related to
street use. A recent case report describes the development
of rampant caries from the abuse of oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate lozenges which are used for the oral management of breakthrough cancer pain.16 Presumably caries risk
associated with drug use is behavioral in nature and relates
to neglect of oral hygiene.
Smokeless tobacco use has also been linked to dental
caries, specifically root caries.17 With respect to cannabis
use, one study found that subjects using this drug excessively had significantly greater smooth surface caries than
controls. The authors speculate that this was related to
the drugs effect on salivation (hyposalivation during use)
and on subsequent post-smoking sugar intake (from the
‘munchies’).18
In addition, as noted previously, any medication that
reduces salivation has the potential to increase the risk of
caries, particularly if it is used over a prolonged period of
time.19 However, other than anecdotes, there is little documented research assessing the link between the commonly
used drugs that cause xerostomia and caries progression. In
one animal study chronic administration of clonidine20 and
propranolol21 was found to increase caries in rats. Other
drugs causing dry mouth that are utilized by patients that
could cause caries include antihistamines, anti-depressants
such as Elavil® (amitriptyline), Asendin® (amoxapine),
Anafranil® (clomipramine), Remeron® (mirtazapine) and
Aventyl® or Pamelor® (nortriptline), and Detrol® which is
commonly used to treat incontinence.
Bulimia and Anorexia
Bulimia, a condition associated with repeated vomiting, has
been connected to the development of dental caries in both
men and women.22 This is presumed to be related to the
fact that patients who chronically vomit, bathe their teeth
in stomach acid during this purging behavior. In addition
to bulimia, anorexia is another psychological condition that
may include vomiting and has also been associated with an
increase in dental caries.
However in a recent systematic review of the literature
assessing the orofacial manifestations of these conditions,
including caries, the authors suggest that the development
of caries in patients with eating disorders may not be an
automatic sequalae of these abnormalities.23
Nonetheless, in otherwise healthy patients with good
oral hygiene but with unusual smooth surface lesions or
rampant caries, eating disorders should be considered as a
potential cause of the disease. Caries activity in this group
of patients may also be confounded by general diet and oral
hygiene as well as salivary gland disturbance.
Medical Conditions Reducing Hygiene Behavior
Any medical condition that contributes to a reduction in
oral hygiene can increase the potential for the development
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of dental caries. Diseases which reduce coordination, limit
cognitive activity, or involve significant physical or mental
disability have the potential to facilitate dental disease,
including caries, and subsequent tooth loss.24 Finally, there
is limited evidence that genetic factors such as a mutant
allele for MMP13 (one of the genes that is responsible for
producing a matrix metalloproteinase) may contribute in
some manner to the etiology of dental caries.25
Oral Ulcers
The systemic conditions that can cause oral ulceration
include infection (e.g. syphilis,26, 27 tuberculosis,28 HIV/
AIDS,29,30 viral infection including herpangina and primary
herpetic stomatitis including herpes simplex virus causality (HSV-1 or 2),31 candida and other fungal organisms
(e.g. mucormycosis or histoplasmosis,32-35 autoimmune
disease (e.g. lupus,36,37 pemphigus and paraneoplastic pemphigus,38,39 lichen planus,40 inflammatory bowel disease,41
thyroid disease,44 malignancy/haematologic disease,45,46
cyclic neutropenia,47 allergy and other drug reactions,48-50
and vascular inflammatory disease.51 Oral ulceration may
also be associated with organ transplants and the medications used to manage rejection or treat other diseases (e.g.
thyroid disease),52 liver transplant,53 or renal transplant.54
Nutritional deficiencies are also associated with intraoral
ulceration.55,56 Oral ulceration has also been reported with
hypogammaglobulinemia.57
Generally the clinical presentation of oral ulcers is not
specific enough to allow identification of the underlying pathology in cases involving systemic disease. There are, however, several clinical features that may be helpful in guiding
the clinician with respect to the differential diagnosis in these
cases. These include ulcer location, duration, reoccurrence,
depth, number, size, scarring, and non-healing.
Lesion Location
Lesions associated with primary herpetic stomatits occur
not only on the intraoral mucosa of the cheek, tongue, palate, and posterior pharynx, but also on the attached gingiva.
This is not a typical presentation that is associated with most
other oral ulcerative diseases and thus can be used to help
differentiate between non-viral and viral etiology.
Lesion Duration
Viral lesions and aphthous ulcers typically persist for 10-14
days and heal with complete resolution. In contrast, lesions
associated with Behcet’s disease may persist for up to four to
six weeks. Ulcers related to underlying neoplasm, a compromised immune system, or nutritional deficiency persist for a
much longer period of time.
Lesion Reoccurrence
Ulceration reoccurring on the attached gingiva is likely to
represent secondary (or reoccurring) HSV-1 or HSV-2.
3
Lesion Depth
Deep cratering of the oral mucosa is typical of the ulcers
associated with Behcet’s disease and HIV/AIDS. However,
lesions associated with major aphthous, tuberculosis and
syphilis may also be relatively deep. Deep tongue lesions
may also be associated with amyloidosis58 and malignancy.
Number of Lesions
Multiple ulcers clustered throughout the mouth suggest viral etiology (e.g. herpes zoster, primary herpetic stomatitis,
or herpangina).
The Size of the Lesion
Large (>1cm or greater) oral ulcers are most typically seen
with erythema multiforma, allergy, benign mucous membrane pemphigoid (BMMP) disease, pemphigus vulgaris,
erosive lichen planus, radiation mucositis or mucositis
associated with chemotherapy and lesions associated with
severe immunosuppression or uremic stomatits. Large
lesions are not typically observed with viral infection although sometimes small lesions will coalesce to form larger
ulcers.59
Post lesion scarring
Ulceration occurring with Bechet’s disease occurs with posthealing scarring. Typically patients with this condition will
have areas of mucosa that are scarred from past episodes.
Non-healing ulcers
These are most commonly found with malignancy.
Gingival Bleeding, Hyperplasia, Discoloration
Gingival Bleeding
Systemic conditions that can cause gingival bleeding
include some of those that also cause ulceration such as
benign mucous membrane pemphigoid (BMMP), pemphigus, lupus erythematosis, leukemia, and erythema multiforme. Other conditions such as uncontrolled diabetes,60
Crohn’s disease (which can cause gingival hyperplasia as
well as erythema and bleeding),61 and idiopathic thrombocytopenia62,63 have also been linked to gingival bleeding.
In addition to the above, what is termed hormonal
gingivitis, a condition that can occur with pregnancy or
disease associated with pregnancy, can also cause generalized gingival erythema and bleeding.64-66
Several medications utilized in the management of a
number of systemic conditions can cause gingival erythema
and bleeding. These include: Trileptal®,68 anticoagulant
drugs such as Coumadin®, warfarin or heparin and chemotherapeutic agents such as methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil.
A complete list of the chemotherapy agents that can cause
mucositis and gingival as well as mucosal bleeding can be
found at: http://www.webmd.com/oral-health/guide/
oral-side-effects-of-medications?page=2. Non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs, including aspirin may also cause
gingival bleeding if used over a prolonged period of time. A
number of herbal medicines may interact with non-herbal
medications (e.g. the anticoagulants) to increase the potential for gingival bleeding including ginkgo biloba, dong
quai, and danshen.69 Other herbal preparations associated
with gingival bleeding include ginger, ginseng, garlic, and
papaya.70
Gingival Hyperplasia
Specific classes of drugs including the immunosuppressants,
calcium channel blockers, and anticonvulsants that are used
in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions can induce
gingival hyperplasia.71, 72 The medications most frequently
cited as problematic for abnormal gingival growth include;73
immunosuppressants, calcium channel blockers, and antiepileptic drugs.
Gingival Discoloration
Gingival discoloration (other than erythema) may be a sign
of Addison’s disease (primary hypoadrenocorticism), silver
poisoning, primary or metastatic malignancy (melanoma),
Kaposi’s sarcoma (with or without associated AIDS),
hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, and Peutz-Jeghers
syndrome (lip lesions).
Intraoral Soft Tissue Tumors
General medical conditions that can cause intraoral soft
tissue tumors include parathyroid disease (e.g. primary
hyperparathyroidism or hyperparathyroidism secondary to
an adenoma or carcinoma of a parathyroid gland - Brown’s
tumor), malignant acanthosis nigricans (hyperplastic, pebbly lesions on the lips), immunosuppression (squamous
papillomas), metastatic neoplasms (typically from the
breast, prostate, thyroid, lung), amyloidosis secondary to
multiple myeloma (pebbly lesions of the lip and cheek).
Some of the other systemic conditions that can cause
single or multiple exophytic papules, tissue enlargement,
or other growths include; chronic granulomatous disease
(Crohn’s disease) (which results in granulomatous gingival
enlargement, cobblestone or corrugated labial mucosa),
lymphoma, syphilis (ulcer plus atypical clinical presentations in AIDS), end stage kidney disease with dialysis
(causes furred tongue); lymphangioma (results in a pebbly
mucosal surface).74-88
Dry Mouth
Any systemic disease that affects the major or minor salivary glands via direct disease involvement or secondarily as
a consequence of medication use, radiation, or surgical
trauma can cause dry mouth or xerostomia. Those systemic
conditions capable of impacting the salivary glands include:89-93 Sjogren’s disease, chronic renal failure (CRF),
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other autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, seronegative spondyloarthritis, connective tissue disease, systemic
lupus erythematosis), non-Hodgkin lymphoma, diabetes,
Parkinson’s disease, HIV/AIDS, psychological problems
(anxiety disorders and depression), stroke and Alzheimer’s
disease, anemia, cystic fibrosis, and other conditions such
as head trauma with nerve damage and chemo or radiation
therapy for head and neck cancer.
Classes of medications used to treat systemic diseases
capable of causing dry mouth include:94 antihistamines, antipsychotics, diuretics, chemotherapeutic agents, migraine
medications, anticholinergic/antispasmodic agents, antidiarrhetics, analgesics – antinflammatory type, narcotic analgesics, anti-acne, anti-anxiety medications, anticonvulsants,
antihypertensives, anti-nausea and anti-emetic medications,
anti-parkinsonian drugs, bronchodilators, muscle relaxants,
and other drugs such as cannabis.
Dry mouth can occur as a secondary effect of treatment
in patients using C-pap for sleep apnea and consequent to
the use of COPD inhalers.95
Jaw movement disorders
Orofacial Pain
Painful jaw movement
Movement of the jaw may be limited by fibromyalgia, tetanus, tumor, and dystonia associated with Behcet’s disease.
Pain in the region of the mouth and face may be caused
by a number of systemic problems. It is not within the
purview of this course to extensively review the clinical
pain characteristics of the following conditions. However several references are listed for additional review.96,
97
Below are several systemic conditions that can cause
orofacial pain:
Cardiac disease (e.g. myocardial infarction, angina)
Thyroid disease (e.g. thyroiditis)
Sinus disease (e.g. acute and chronic sinusitis)
Autoimmune disease (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, scleroderma)
Secondary trigeminal neuralgia (e.g. from tumors such as meningioma, epidermoid tumor, acoustic neurinoma, metastatic
tumor, brain stem glioma; vascular lesions such as basilar
artery or cavernous sinus aneurysm; connective disease such as
scleroderma; Paget’s disease; syphilis; or toxins; MS)
Craniofacial pain of musculoskeletal origin (e.g. TMD, TMJ
osteoarthritis, bone infection or primary or metastatic tumor)
Infection (e.g. otitis media, infection secondary to immunosuppression)
Sickle cell disease (sickle cell arthropathy)
Vascular inflammatory conditions (e.g. giant cell arteritis,
temporal arteritis, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus)
Psychological abnormality (e.g. somatoform disorder, pain of
psychological origin in the head or face)
Medication neurotoxicity (e.g. vincristine)
Suboccipital or cervical nerve or muscle problems
Diabetes
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Jaw movement can be altered by several medical conditions
affecting the musculature, nervous system, vascular system,
or the bones of the cranium or mandible. Movement disorders include opening stiffness, opening difficulty, painful
movement, and unintentional movement. The conditions
that should be considered in the differential diagnosis related to systemic disease for the above jaw movement problems
are listed below.98-102
Jaw opening stiffness
Jaw opening stiffness can be caused by scleroderma, fibromyalgia, muscular dystrophy, and multiple sclerosis (MS).
Opening difficulty
Difficulty in opening the jaw may result from infection (including the cephalic form of tetanus), poisoning, neurologic
disease, psychogenic abnormality, tumor, substance abuse,
dystonia, radiation induced trismus, ‘locked-in’ syndrome,
brain stem lesions, idiopathic inflammatory myopathies.
Intermittent unintentional movement
Additional jaw movement abnormality including intermittent unintentional movement can result from Parkinson’s
disease, epilepsy, dystonia, nocturnal paroxysmal dystonia, serotonin syndrome, and substance abuse.
Tooth Morphologic Abnormality
Dental problems associated with systemic disease include
excessive tooth wear (from bulimia, anorexia, neurologic
disease, psychological problems, genetic disorders),114-120 developmental (genetic) abnormalities causing malformed or
excessive or impacted teeth, discoloration (from medication
use), and tooth root resorption (bulimia, gastroesophageal
reflux disease, excessive soft drink consumption associated
with obesity, diabetes, drug abuse, salivary gland agenesis,
and high blood pressure).103-113
Tooth and Mucosal Discoloration
Dental discoloration
Dental discoloration can arise from the treatment of systemic infection with tetracycline and tetracycline-derived
broad spectrum antibiotics. The result is permanent if
the drugs are used during development of the teeth and
bone as they are incorporated into the dental and enamel
structure. Tissues affected include the teeth, bone, and cartilage. Both primary and permanent teeth are susceptible
to discoloration which can range from grey to brown or
be yellow. Minocycline hydrochloride application during
5
growth and development of bone leads to black or green
tooth roots and a blue-gray darkening of the crowns of the
permanent teeth. Staining may also occur in erupted permanent teeth from minocycline and within the mucosa of
the palate.121-124
Environmental exposure to a number of elements has
also been associated with discoloration of teeth. These
include silver, iron, and manganese which stain black;
mercury and lead dust which stains the teeth blue-green;
copper and nickel stain blue to blue/green, and chromic
acid which can stain the teeth deep orange.125, 126 Excessive
fluoride during development tends to mottle the color of
enamel.127 In addition to the above causes of tooth discoloration, neonatal sepsis has also been associated with
emergence of ‘green teeth’.128
Mucosal discoloration
Mucosal discoloration can be indicative of systemic
disease. A large number of conditions can cause varying
types of mucosal discoloration. The following are systemic
problems that are known to cause mucosal discoloration
and the specific type of discoloration that has been described for each condition.129-131 Minocycline is associated
with a palatal ring. Kaposi sarcoma (KS) is associated with
multiple red lesions within the mucosa, Addison’s disease
results in hyperpigmentation of the mucosa, melanoma results in a diffuse or more discrete solitary blue black tissue,
thrombocytopenic purpura/leukemia and hemophilia are
characterized by mucosal petechiae, pernicious anemia
causes tongue discoloration, infection (such as infectious
mononucleosis) is associated with petechiae on the palate.
Generalized redness of the oral mucosa is associated
with a number of systemic diseases including: pemphigus,
erosive lichen planus, radiation necrosis, mucositis, candidosis secondary to immunosuppression, allergy, erythema
multiforme, polycythemia, Crohn’s disease, epidermolysis bullosa, viral infection, leukemia, uremic stomatitis,
and vitamin B deficiency
Bone Pathology
Radiolucencies associated with the pericoronal or follicular
spaces adjacent to the teeth are not uncommon. However
systemic disease that can cause this type of bone loss is
rare. Those conditions that have been linked to lesions
associated with unerupted teeth include Ewing’s sarcoma,
histiocytosis X, pseudotumor of hemophilia, and salivary
gland tumors. The diseases that can cause unilocular or
multilocular radiolucency or radiolucency in the maxilla
or mandible not linked to the dentition include metastatic
carcinoma, giant cell tumor resulting from hyperparathyroid disease or neurofibromatosis type 1, Burkitt’s lymphoma, chondrosarcoma, eosinophilic granuloma, fibrous
dysplasia, cherubism, Ewing’s sarcoma, Langerhan’s cell
disease (idiopathic histiocytosis), malignant lymphoma of
bone, multiple myeloma, neuroblastoma, neurosarcoma,
sarcoidosis, tuberculosis, and scleroderma.
For a complete review of disease that can cause bone
pathology the reader is referred to the authoritarian texts
that are provided as references.
The differential diagnosis is refined clinically by the
patient’s gender, age, predominant jaw and region of the
jaw where the lesion is located, the type of lesion (unilocular or multilocular) and the configuration of the lesion’s
borders (e.g. well defined or diffuse/ill-defined), the patient’s symptom history (e.g. presence or absence of pain,
dyesthesia/paresthesia,), and examination findings (e.g.
localized swelling, gingival involvement, tooth mobility,
tooth vitality). Other important considerations include
serum chemistries, general symptoms, and bone biopsy.
Another condition involving the jaw bones is osteonecrosis caused by the use of bisphosphonates as treatment
for advanced forms of cancer.133 Bone resorption of the
mandibular angle has been associated with progressive
systemic sclerosis. A generalized rarefaction of the jaw
bones may also result from nutritional abnormality such as
calcium deficiency (causing osteomalacia or ‘rickets’) or vitamin C deficiency as well as the hereditary hemolytic anemias such as thalassemia and sickle cell anemia. Leukemia
can also cause rarefaction of the skull and jaw ramus. In the
early stages of Paget’s disease (osteitis deformans) rarefaction and bone resorption are associated with radiographic
radiolucency and in the later stage when there is fibrous
deposition the bones take on a ‘cotton-wool’ appearance
when viewed radiographically.
The temporomandibular joints may be affected by connective tissue diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile
idiopathic arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and arthritis associated with lupus as well as systemic cancer with metastasis.
Gout may also affect the TMJ. Dermatomyositis has been
reported to be associated with condylar resorption.141-146
Conclusion
The effect of systemic health on oral disease is well documented and includes soft and hard tissue abnormality and
pathology. The diagnosis of oral pathology by dental
professionals may contribute towards the discovery of systemic disease. Regardless of which way the arrow points, the
complexity of management of oral disease associated with
systemic disease is likely to be confounded by the connection between the two and successful management warrants
an understanding of both problems.
Further Reading
Section on Pain:
1. Surgical management of pain. Editor Kim J Burchiel, Thieme,
New York, 2002. Chapter 20, Jeffrey A Burgess, p 276-287.
2. Neurosurgical management of pain. Editors Richard B North,
Robert M. Levy, Springer, New York, 1996, Chapter 7: Facial
and Cranial Pain; Kim J Burchiel and Jeffrey A Burgess.
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Sections on Bone, Tooth, and Mucosal Pathology:
1. Differential Diagnosis of Oral Lesions. Editors Norman K
Wood and Paul W Goaz. C.V. Mosby Company, St Louis,
Second edition. 1980.
2. Tumors of the Head and Neck; Clinical and Pathological
Considerations. 2nd Ed. John G Batsakis, Williams and
Wilkins, Baltimore, 1982.
3. Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. Editors Brad W Neville,
Douglas D Damm, Carl M Allen, Jerry E Bouquot, W.B.
Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1995.
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Pontes DG, Correa KM, Cohen-Carneiro F. Reestablishing esthetics of fluorosis-stained teeth using enamel
microabrasion and dental bleaching techniques. Eur J Esthet
Dent. 2012;7(2):130-7. [PMID: 22645728].
128.Swann O, Powls A. Images in clinical medicine. Green teeth
in neonatal sepsis. N Engl J Med. Aug 9 2012;367(6):e8.
[PMID: 22873557].
129.Ciçek Y, Ertas U. The normal and pathological pigmentation
of oral mucous membrane: a review. J Contemp Dent Pract.
Aug 15 2003;4(3):76-86. [PMID: 12937598].
130.Altunay I, Kucukunal A, Demirci GT, Ates B. Variable clinical
presentations of Classic Kaposi Sarcoma in Turkish patients.
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Shah SS, Oh CH, Coffin SE, Yan AC. Addisonian
pigmentation of the oral mucosa. Cutis. Aug 2005;76(2):97-9.
[PMID: 16209154].
132.Lajolo C, Campisi G, Deli G, Littarru C, Guiglia R, Giuliani
M. Langerhans’s cell histiocytosis in old subjects: two rare
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Pechalova P, Bakardjiev A, Zaprianov Z, Vladimirov
B, Poriazova E, Zheleva A. Bisphosphonate-associated
osteonecrosis of the jaws -- report of three cases in Bulgaria and
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134.Saranjam HR, Sidransky E, Levine WZ, Zimran A, Elstein D.
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135.El Fares N, El Bouihi M, Zouhair K, El Kabli H, Benchikhi H.
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136.Ryba F, Rice S, Hutchison IL. Numb chin syndrome: an
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137.Orhan E, Erol S, Deren O, Sevin A, Ekici O, Erdogan B.
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Feb 2009;16(2):325-8. [PMID: 19056274].
140.Cazal C, Sobral AP, Neves RF, Freire Filho FW, Cardoso AB,
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141.Stoll ML, Sharpe T, Beukelman T, Good J, Young D, Cron
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143.Farronato G, Garagiola U, Carletti V, Cressoni P, Bellintani
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Author Profile
Jeff Burgess, DDS, MSD, (Retired) Clinical Assistant
Professor, Department of Oral Medicine, University of
Washington School of Dental Medicine; (Retired) Attending in Pain Center, University of Washington Medical Center; (Retired) Private Practice in Hawaii and Washington;
Director, Oral Care Research Associates. He can be reached
at [email protected] .
Disclaimer
Jeff Burgess, DDS, MSD, has no commercial ties with the
sponsors or the providers of the unrestricted educational
grant for this course.
10www.ineedce.com
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Questions
1. Systemic conditions that may result in
tooth discoloration include:
a. Neonatal sepsis
b.Hemophilia
c. Thyroid disease
d. Sinus disease
2.Which systemic disease may be associated
with x-ray follicular space and pericoronal
radiolucency:
a.Tuberculosis
b. Progressive systemic sclerosis
c. Paget’s disease
d. Pseudotumor of hemophilia
3.Name the one systemic condition that is
not likely to be associated with temporomandibular joint pathology:
a. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis
b.Gout
c.Dermatomyositis
d.Cherubism
4.Which systemic condition has NOT been
associated with tooth erosion:
a. High blood pressure
b.Obesity
c.Diabetes
d. Liver disease
5. Which systemic condition is NOT associated with mucosal discoloration:
a.Peutz-Jegher
b. Kaposi sarcoma (KS)
c. Pancreatic cancer
d. Laugier’s disease
6.When a patient presents with jaw muscle
stiffness which of the following systemic
conditions should be considered in the
differential diagnosis:
a.Scleroderma
b. Thyroid disease
c. Kidney disease
d. Rheumatoid arthritis
7. Which of these systemic diseases does
NOT cause unintentional jaw movement:
a. Serotonin syndrome
b. Substance abuse
c.Epilepsy
d. Jaw metastatic neoplasm
8.In a study on the relationship between
dental caries and nutritional status, snack
foods, and sugar-sweetened beverage
consumption in schoolchildren in
Thailand it was found that the following
factor was strongly associated with caries
development:
a.Malnutrition
b.Weight
c. A diet of meat
d. Soft drinks
9.Which one of these conditions is not
associated with jaw pain:
a.Tetanus
b.Fibromyalgia
c.Tumor
d. Pancreatic disease
10. The term ‘hormonal’ gingivitis is
associated with:
a. Thyroid abnormality
b. Adrenal insufficiency
c. Pregnancy
d. Pituitary disease
www.ineedce.com
11. Sarcoidosis is manifested in the mouth
by:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Fibroepithelial hyperplasia
Non-caseating granulomas
Deep ulcers
Blue stained gingiva
12. Which of these clinical features of oral
ulcers is not helpful in defining a possible
underlying systemic disease:
a. Ulcer depth
b. The number of ulcers
c.Scaring
d. Reoccurrence frequency
13. Oral ulcers that persist for a long time
may be most likely to be indicative of
which systemic disease:
a. Kidney disease
b. Thyroid disease
c. Immune deficiency
d.Dermatomyositis
14. Which of the following systemic conditions has not been associated with the
development of dental caries:
a.Diabetes
b.Bulimia
c. Drug abuse
d. Dermatologic disease
15. Multiple painful punctuate oral ulcers
occurring on the attached gingiva suggests which systemic condition:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Behcet’s disease
Lymphoepithelial disease
Viral infection
Lichen planus
16. Which of these conditions does not cause
oral ulceration:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Viral infection
Thyroid disease
Pulmonary disease
Inflammatory bowel disease
17. Smokeless tobacco has been linked to
what type of caries:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Mesial interproximal caries
Occlusal caries
Cervical (root) caries
Distal interproximal caries
18. A brain tumor such as a meningioma
can cause:
a.
b.
c.
d.
(Secondary) trigeminal neuralgia
Burning tongue
TMJ pain
Ear pain
19. Hypogammaglobulinemia has been
associated with what type of oral problem:
a. Periodontal disease
b.Caries
c. Oral tumors
d. Oral ulceration
20. In healthy patients with good oral
hygiene but unusual smooth surface
lesions or rampant caries what problem
should be considered as a potential cause
of the oral disease:
a. Thyroid disease
b. Pancreatic disease
c.Bulimia
d.Sarcoidosis
21. Heck’s disease is most likely to result in
what type of oral problem:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Periodontal Disease
Impacted third molars
Epithelial hyperplasia
Gingival discoloration
22. Which class of medication is not likely to
cause gingival hyperplasia:
a.Corticosteroids
b.Immunosuppressants
c. Calcium channel blockers
d. Antiepileptic drugs
23. Which systemic disease is most likely to
result in post-oral ulceration scaring:
a.Tuberculosis
b.Syphilis
c. Kidney failure
d. Behcet’s disease
24. Sjogren’s disease causes what oral
problem:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Periodontal disease
Tooth developmental abnormality
Dry mouth
Jaw movement abnormality
25. Large oral ulcers are most likely to be
observed with which systemic disease:
a. Erythema multiforma
b.Herpes
c. Uremic poisoning
d. Aphthous stomatitis
26. Intermittent unintentional jaw movement is not likely to be associated with
which one of these systemic problems:
a.Dystonia
b.Anorexia
c. Parkinson’s disease
d. Serotonin syndrome
27. Which of these intraoral problems is
NOT caused by Crohn’s disease:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Gingival hyperplasia
Gingival bleeding
Gingival erythema
Gingival blackening
28. Gardner’s syndrome results in what oral
problem:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Periodontal bleeding
Gum hyperplasia
Dental malformations
Mandibular osteomas
29. Multiple ulcers clustered throughout the
mouth suggest what type of etiology:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Kidney disease
Pulmonary disease
Viral infection
Cardiac disease
30. In the study of caries activity of school
children in Thailand, what condition
besides malnutrition was found to
contribute to the development of dental
caries in primary teeth?
a. The type of food eaten during the day
b. Food intake habits at bedtime
c. The number of meals eaten in a day
d. The amount of food intake
11
ANSWER SHEET
Oral Manifestations of Systemic Disease
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Requirements for successful completion of the course and to obtain dental continuing education credits: 1) Read the entire course. 2) Complete all
information above. 3) Complete answer sheets in either pen or pencil. 4) Mark only one answer for each question. 5) A score of 70% on this test will earn
you 2 CE credits. 6) Complete the Course Evaluation below. 7) Make check payable to PennWell Corp. For Questions Call 216.398.7822
Educational Objectives
If not taking online, mail completed answer sheet to
Academy of Dental Therapeutics and Stomatology,
1. Discuss the complexity of the relationship between systemic disease and various oral conditions.
A Division of PennWell Corp.
2. Identify the different oral manifestations associated with specific systemic diseases.
P.O. Box 116, Chesterland, OH 44026
or fax to: (440) 845-3447
3. Differentiate between potential systemic diseases associated with some specific oral conditions such as ulceration.
4. Have improved diagnostic skills in relation to the connection between systemic disease and oral pathology.
For immediate results, go to www.ineedce.com
and click on the button “Take Tests Online.” Answer
sheets can be faxed with credit card payment to
(440) 845-3447, (216) 398-7922, or (216) 255-6619.
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AGD Code 739
PLEASE PHOTOCOPY ANSWER SHEET FOR ADDITIONAL PARTICIPANTS.
COURSE EVALUATION and PARTICIPANT FEEDBACK
We encourage participant feedback pertaining to all courses. Please be sure to complete the survey included
with the course. Please e-mail all questions to: [email protected].
INSTRUCTIONS
All questions should have only one answer. Grading of this examination is done manually. Participants will
receive confirmation of passing by receipt of a verification form. Verification of Participation forms will be
mailed within two weeks after taking an examination.
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