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Memory
Modal Model of the Mind


Three memory stores
Four Control Processes
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
Sensory Memory Store

Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory

Divided into two
subtypes:
 iconic memory - visual
information
 echoic memory auditory information
Visual or iconic memory
was discovered by
Sperling in 1960
Sperling’s Experiment

Presented matrix of letters
for 1/20 a second

Report as many letters as
possible

Subjects recall only half of
the letters

Was this because subjects
didn’t have enough time to
view entire matrix? No

How did Sperling know this?
Sperling’s Experiment

Sperling showed people can see
and recall ALL the letters
momentarily

Sounded low, medium or high tone
immediately after matrix
disappeared

tone signaled 1 row to report

recall was almost perfect
 Memory for image fades after
1/3 seconds or so, making report
of entire display hard to do
High
Medium
Low
How does Information get
from Sensory to STM?
Who did research in this
area?
Selective Attention

Also called “Preattentive Processing”
Cherry 1953
Dichotic Listening
Cocktail Party Effect



The ability to focus on a single speaker, even if
there are many speakers, is known as the
“cocktail party effect”
The hearing impaired have a diminished ability
to focus on one speaker when there are
numerous contemporaneous sounds
Recent research aims to separate the audio
signals so that only the speaker of interest is
amplified by the hearing aid
Separation Methods

Classical methods


Beamforming


Exploit spectral diversity
Assumes speech sources of no interest are in far field
Adaptive Noise Cancellation

Assumes availability of reference signal (which must not
contain speech of interest)

Blind Source Separation, BSS

Exploit spatial diversity, e.g., speech sources must be
spatially distinct
Short Term Memory Store



Function - conscious processing of information
 where information is actively worked on
Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
Duration - brief storage (about 15 - 30 seconds)
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Short Term Memory

Miller – The Magical Number 7, Plus or
Minus Two.


Chunking
Peterson and Peterson – Short Term
Retention of Individual Verbal Items.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Allows information to remain in working
memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Working Memory Model
Baddeley (1992)
 3 interacting components

Visuospatial
Sketch Pad
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
Working Memory Model



Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info
Phonological loop - holds verbal information
Central executive - coordinates all activities of working
memory; brings new information into working memory from
sensory and long-term memory
Visuospatial
Sketch pad
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
How does Information get
from STM to LTM?
Who did research in this
area?
Encoding and
Levels of Processing
Craik and Tulving 1975
Type of
Processing
Deep
0
Shallow -Acoustic
Shallow - Visual
10
20
30
40
50 60
70
80
Percent of words recalled
90 100
More Evidence for Elaboration
Positive correlation between grades and
use of elaboration in 5th grade students
 In an experiment, college students
assigned to use elaboration received
higher grades than students not taught
elaboration

Ways to Use Elaboration
Actively question new information
 Think about its implications
 Relate information to things you already
know
 Generate own examples of concepts
 Don’t highlight passage as you read
 Focus on the ideas in the text

Long-term Memory Systems
Squire 1993
Long-term Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Memory
Semantic
Memory
Implicit Memory
Procedural
Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Priming
Explicit Memory

Also known as declarative or conscious memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Implicit Memory
Also known as nondeclarative memory
Influences your thoughts or behavior,
but does not enter consciousness
Implicit Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Procedural
Memory
Priming
There is biological evidence for these
theories as shown in Pet Scans.
Modal Model of the Mind


Three memory stores
Four Control Processes
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Working or
Long-term
Short-term
memory
Memory Retrieval
Elizabeth Loftus and
John Palmer: Memory
Experiment and Hypothesis

Hypothesis: People will remember a car accident
differently if given different language cues (words)
about the accident
Loftus and Palmer:
Methodology



Students watched a film of two cars colliding
Collision was moderate with no broken glass
Different students asked different questions: hit,
smashed, collided, bumped, contacted
Loftus and Palmer: Results


VERB
MEAN ESTIMATE OF SPEED (MPH)
Smashed
40.8
Collided
39.3
Bumped
38.1
Hit
34.0
Contacted
31.8
People reported the fastest speeds if the researchers
had used the word “smashed” in the question
From fastest to slowest reported speeds: smashed,
collided, bumped, hit, and contacted groups
Loftus and Palmer: Results


One week later, subjects were asked if they had seen
broken glass
32% of subjects asked the “smashed” question said
yes; 14% of subjects asked the “hit” question said yes
Loftus and Palmer: Results
and Implications


People remember things differently depending on the
language used to describe an event (e.g., “smashed”
versus “hit”)
Misinformation effect
Role of Time : Decay Theory




Memories fade away or
decay gradually if unused
Time plays critical role
Ability to retrieve info
declines with time after
original encoding
Problem: Many things
change with time.
Something else may
change and actually
cause forgetting:
Interference