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• Historians used to describe turn-of-the-century U.S.
imperialism as something new…now they emphasize
continuities between foreign policy in this era and the nation’s
relentless earlier expansion across the continent
• By 1890s, policymakers were on a determined quest for global, overseas
markets that would create jobs and prosperity at home
• Policymakers feared that American workers would embrace socialism or
communism
• 1885- minister Josiah Strong, Our Country, predicted that American “AngloSaxons”—”the representative, let us hope, of the largest liberty, the purest
Christianity, the highest civilization, having developed particularly aggressive
traits calculated to impress its institutions upon mankind” would “spread
itself over the earth”
• American exceptionalism—
• The idea that the United States had a unique destiny to foster democracy
and civilization
• Empires have no interest in operating within an international
system, they aspire to be the international system. Empires have
no need for a balance of power.
• That is how the United States has conducted its foreign policy in
the Americas.
• No country has so tormented itself over the gap between its
moral values, which are by definition absolute, and the
imperfection inherent in the concrete situation to which they
must be applied.
The Rise of the
American Empire
Early Thoughts of Empire
• Washington referred to America as a “nascent empire” later an “infant
empire”
• Jefferson was “persuaded no constitution was ever before as well
calculated as ours for extending extensive empire and selfgovernment”…the initial “confederacy “ of thirteen would be “the nest
from which all America, North and South would be peopled”
• Madison (10th Federalist Papers) argued for “extend[ing] the sphere” to
create a larger republic
• Monroe defended westward expansion:
• It must be obvious to all, that the further the expansion is carried, provided
it be not beyond the just limit, the greater will be the freedom of action to
both [state and federal] Governments, and the more perfect their security;
and, in all other respects, the better the effect will be to the whole
American people. Extent of territory, whether it be great or small, give to a
nation many of its characteristics. It marks the extent of its resources, of
its population, of its physical force. It marks, in short, the difference
between a great and a small power”
• Hamilton (1st Federalist Papers) referred to the US as “in many
respects the most interesting…empire…in the world,” looking
forward to the emergence of a “great American system, superior to
the control of all trans-Atlantic force of influence, and able to
dictate the terms of connection between the Old and the New
World”
History of U.S. Foreign Policy
• George Washington: “no foreign entanglements”
• James Monroe 1823: American affairs=the whole Western
Hemisphere
• 1) US would not get involved in European affairs
• 2) US would not interfere with existing European colonies in the
Western Hemisphere
• 3) No other nation could form a new colony in the Western
Hemisphere
• 4) If they did the US would view it as a hostile act against the
US...the peoples of the West “are henceforth, not to be considered
subjects for future colonization by any European powers”
• Not really used or known as Monroe Doctrine until the 1900s
• So until the 1890s into the 1900s, America practiced isolationism
The America Frontier–
“Manifest Destiny” & Cash
• Conquering the Native Americans relatively easy; establishing terra
nullius, free, ownerless land
• None of other European powers posed a fatal threat to US after
1783
• Bought Louisiana Purchase—eight hundred thousand square miles
for $11.2 million from France (1803)*
• Britain agreed to boundary at 49th parallel for southern boundary
of Canada (1812)
• Spain relinquished Florida and recognized new western boundary
along border of what became Oklahoma (1815)
• With the War with Mexico and $20 million, the US acquired Texas,
Upper California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah and Nevada
(1848)*
• The Gasden Purchase cost $10 million in 1853*
• Alaska cost $7.2 million in 1867*
New Markets
• 1880s – James G. Blaine (Secretary of State) voiced that “openings of
assured and profitable enterprise” for northern industry “in the mines
of South America and the railroads of Mexico…even in mid-ocean” and
that it was “the especial province of this country to improve and
expand its trade with the nations of America”
• Early 1890s, Indiana senator Albert J. Beveridge claimed “American
factories are making more that the American people can use; American
soil is producing more than they can consume. Fate has written our
policy for us; the trade of the world must and shall be ours…We will
establish trading posts throughout the world as distributing points for
American products…Great colonies governing themselves, flying our
flag and trading with us, will grow about our posts of trade…And
American law, American order, American civilization, and the American
flag will plant themselves on shores hitherto bloody and benighted, but
by those agencies of God henceforth to be made beautiful and bright”
• Between 1865—1900,
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American coal production rose by 800%
railway track mileage rose by 567%
wheat production rose by 256%
immigration doubled the population
Economic Imperialism
• Components of economic imperialism were equal on both sides of
the Atlantic:
1) A desire to reduce other people’s tariffs (Open Door)
2) A confidence that overseas investment would beget new export
markets
3) A readiness to use political and military leverage to outwit
competition
4) Ideological currents—social Darwinism…no desire to shoulder the
“white man’s burden”
Moving Outside the Continent-Imperialism
• Was obtaining colonies outside the borders even constitutional?
• Chief Justice Roger B. Taney (1857): there was “certainly no power
given by the Constitution to the Federal Government to establish or
maintain colonies bordering on the United States or at a distance, to
be ruled and governed at its own pleasure; not to enlarge its
territorial limits in any way, except by admission of new States”
• First overseas possessions were islands desirable only as naval bases
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1867-Midway
1877-Pago Pago
1898-Guam & Wake Island, Philippines, Puerto Rico
1898-Overthrow of Hawaii and annexation
• In 1899 A. Lawrence Lowell (Harvard Review): “Possession may also
be acquired as not to form part of the United States, and in that
case constitutional limits, such as those requiring uniformity of
taxation and trial by jury do not apply” (later confirmed in Downes v
Bidwell 1901)
“This accession of territory affirms
forever the power of the United
States, and I have just given England a
maritime rival that sooner or later will
lay low her pride”
----Napoleon Bonaparte
American
Imperialism
1890-1914
• Shift from continental to world power
• Anglo-American concept
• Special bond forming between US and Britain
• US complete control of Latin America
• Putting teeth in Monroe Doctrine
• Britain extricates itself
• Closed sphere of influence
• Increasing presence in Asia
• Open Door sphere of influence
• Double standard
• Begin collision course with Japan
• Myth of American exceptionalism
• Makes American feel good
• Fostering economic development and spreading democracy
• “Beacon” to shine on the rest of the world
• Power of economics
• Multi-national corporations
• Dollar drives foreign policy
• Cuba, Hawaii, Nicaragua, Philippines—all have viable systems of democratic ideals
but incapable of self-rule?
Why 1890s?
• Closing American frontier
• Safety valve—always move
• Industrial revolution
• 1893 financial panic
• Need markets
• Great social unrest
• Labor unions
• Get in overseas adventure, will manufacture consent
• Geopolitics
• Mahan—sea power
• Social Darwinism
• Strong must conquer weak
• Yellow Press
• Stirs up emotion-sensationalism
• Foreign adventure stories
• Internationalists—new generation
• Teddy Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge
• Success of British model
• Imperialism---”Sun never sets on the British Empire”
The Western Hemisphere
• Secretary of State Richard Olney: the United States could be
regarded as “practically sovereign on this continent”—”not
because of pure friendship or good will felt for it…not simply by
reason of its high character as a civilized state, nor because
wisdom and justice and equity are the invariable characteristics of
the dealings of the United States…[but] because in addition to all
other grounds, its infinite resources combined with its isolated
position render it master of the situation and practically
invulnerable”
• But US really needed a navy…enter Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan’s
The Influence of Sea Power upon History
• 1904—Roosevelt Corollary added to the Monroe Doctrine making
US an “international police power” Big Stick Diplomacy
• 1907—US Navy only second to that of Great Britain and the
Monroe Doctrine belatedly acquired credibility
1898-1909
• Spanish-American War
• US acquires Guam, Puerto Rico & Philippines; Cuba independence
• Fought a 3 year war in the Philippines
• Platt Amendment kept Cuba under US “protection”
• 1904-Roosevelt Corollary added to the Monroe Doctrine making US
an international policing power
• Asserted the US unrestricted right to regulate affairs in the Caribbean
• Not a treaty, only a declaration sanctioned only by US military and
economic might
• In 1909, US overthrew Jose Santos Zelaya in Nicaragua because he
refuse to allow American lumber and mining companies to operate
freely in his country
• Began a cycle of rebellion and intervention lasting nearly a century
• American banana planter angry at Honduras President Davila’s
efforts to limit his land holdings and tax his exports; US troops help
stage a “revolution” launched by planter and Davila forced into exile
Open Door Policy
• In 1894-1895, Japan, Russia, Germany, France & Britain divide coastal
China in spheres of influence
• US Secretary of State John Hay sent notes claiming the right of equal trade
access—an “open door” for all nations seeking to do business in China
• US wanted access to huge markets in China
• In 1900, Chinese nationalist (Boxers) rebelled against foreign occupation
and US sent in 5,000 troops to join multinational campaign to stop the
rebellion
• During this time, Japan was emerging as East Asia’s dominant power
startling US & Britain
• Theodore Roosevelt got a Pulitzer Peace Prize for mediating a RussoJapanese conflict over Korea and Manchuria; Roosevelt respected the
Japanese and in 1908 US signed the Root-Takahira Agreement with Japan
• In 1909, Taft entered White House and thought US was short changed in
Asia—pressed for larger role for American investors “Dollar Diplomacy;”
then supported Chinese nationalist
• The Open Door policy with China was considered a double standard on
the US because they wouldn’t open spheres of influence in Central and
South America
Wilson & Mexico
• Since the 1870s Mexican dictator Diaz created a friendly climate for
American investors who purchased railroads, plantations, mines and much
coveted oil fields
• By early 1900s he began to nationalize (reclaim) key resources which
angered American investors
• In 1911, Francisco Madero, an advocate of constitutional government who
was friendlier to US interests forced Diaz to resign and proclaimed himself
president
• In 1913 Madero was deposed and murdered by Victoriano Huerta
• In 1914 Wilson sent a small force of marines to seize control of the key port
and oil terminal of Veracruz and prevent importation of German arms—
Huerta’s regime crumbled & Venustiano Carranza became Mexico’s leader
• Revolutionary activity did not stop and Wilson sent 11,000 troops across
the border to find rebel Pancho Villa…they failed and began small
skirmishes with the Mexican army—fearing full out war, both governments
backed off
• US policymakers had shown they would not only police Central America
and the Caribbean but also Mexico when they deemed it necessary
th
20 -Century Overall
• Factors that shaped foreign policy:
1) Economics
• Multi-national corporations
• Economic power elite-political system
• Cold-War military-industrial complex
2) Ideology
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Vision of national greatness—American exceptionalism
Racial hierarchy-cultural superiority
Extreme anti-revolutionary
Unilateralism – acting alone and independent
3) Domestic politics
• Can’t appear weak
• Nation of ill-informed immigrants
4) Rise of imperial presidency
• Bypass checks & balances
• Violates foundation of American Government
5) Resource wars
• oil
• In the 20th-century, no country has influenced
international relations as decisively and at the
same time as ambivalently as the United States.
No society has more firmly insisted on the
inadmissibility of intervention in the domestic
affairs of other states, or more passionately
asserted that its own values were more universally
applicable. No nation has been more pragmatic in
the day-to-day conduct of its diplomacy, or more
ideological in the pursuit of its historic moral
convictions. No country has been more reluctant
to engage itself abroad even while undertaking
alliances and commitments of unprecedented
reach and scope.
Henry Kissinger
Secretary of State 1973-1977