Download Water For Living

WATER FOR LIVING
Blood= 82% water
Blood is the delivery system for the body and picks up waste
Water carries dissolved gases and other materials
Cells rely on water to maintain their shape and allow them to function
Without water cells collapse
Plants rely on water to transport materials around their body = transpiration stream
Maximise water take-in
Large root surface to maximise water taken in
Deep roots access ground water
Plants grow sparsely reducing competition
Leaves slope upwards to catch rain and direct it
towards the roots
Minimise water loss
Cuticle – thick outer coating on the leaves lose
less water via evaporation
Eg. Gum leaves
Wax blocks stomates
Reduce number/size of leaves
Open stomates at night when temp is coolerpush water out in summer, hold it in in winter
Hairs
Animals reducing water loss
- Water holding frogs reduce water loss by having a reduced area to volume ratio – shorts
limbs + round body reduces evaporation
- Burrow underground cooler temps
- Nocturnal = cooler ambient temps
- Excretory organs of desert animals have adapted to maximise the amount of water absorbed
before excretion
- Kangaroos lie in the shade
Hydrological cycle= closed system of water that circulates between the earth’s surface and the
atmosphere
Bore water: drawn from a body of underground water, either through a deep pipe or a shallow hole
Artesian water: Groundwater that is under sufficient pressure to rise above the level at which it
encounters a well
Water table: surface beneath ground level between the zone of saturation and zone of aeration
Dams: barrier constructed to hold back water and raise its level, forming a reservoir used to
generate electricity or as a water supply.
Rivers: large natural stream of water flowing in a channel to the sea, a lake, or another river
Lake: a large area of water surrounded by land
Wetlands: land consisting of marshes or swamps; saturated land.
Bedrock water: water present in porous rocks held between layers of impermeable rock
Salinity: biggest issue in AUS
15 billion trees were cut down in the Murray Darling to make way for agriculture
As rain started to make its way down to the water table this created a hydrological imbalance and
the salt began to rise
Plant more trees, trench irrigation
NSW rivers have been disturbed by farm and sewage run off
GDR reduces rain coming in from the east + aus arid
RAINFORESTS
High humidity and moist soils are
essential
Exist in isolated pockets on
northern NSW coast
WET SCLEROPHYLL
Hard leaves – well known in AUS
Eg. Eucalyptus- Mountain Ash
Higher than average rainfall
areas with well drained soil
DRY SCLEROPHYLL
Pants are more adapted to drier
conditions
Eg. Acacia
Low rainfall, poor nutrient soils
SHUBBERY WOODLAND
Low open woodland
Plants grow sparsely reduce
comp for water
Less than 2m high
CLEARING
Large parts of western NSW
cleared for agriculture
Removed native vege and
altered the ecological balance
WETLANDS
NSW some are fresh others are
saline
Seasonal vege based on rain
Often have massive catchment
areas
Heavily impacted by the
introduction of irrigation limiting
river flow to these areas
Laws imposed regulating discharge into river systems = water health improving
Rivers need to be regulated and managed to maintain health and ecosystem quality
Fertiliser: Aus ecosystem =
poor nutrients
Used to replenish nutrients
taken from the soil, demand for
high yield
May be washed into waterways
from surface run off
Algal bloom growth from
nitrate and phosphorus = kills
fish
Herbicides: Chemicals aimed at
killing specific plants that
compete with cops for
nutrients
Pesticide: Kill pests
Can kill non-target animals,
wash into waterways
Reduce chemical use in
agriculture by companion
cropping, physical barriers, crop
rotation, computer controlled
spraying, treat run off (holding
ponds)
Household Pollution
Oil tipped down the drain can stop oxygen getting into the water
Engine oils can damage water proofing on birds feathers
Detergents, bleach and toilet cleaners often contain high levels of phosphates and nitrates
contribute to algal blooms
Bleach and toilet cleaners = toxic to fish/birds in high concentrations
Sewage can contain high levels of nutrients that contribute to algal blooms
Lead and mercury (heavy metals) naturally found in trace amounts, large amounts = human
contamination
Lead: old house plumbing. If the water supply is acidic it dissolves lead poisoning water
Use/disposal of heavy metals is regulated, necessary processes only
Phosphates commonly found in detergents, contribute to algal bloom grown and speed up
eutrophication
Nitrates can cause algal blooms. These blooms can cause deoxygenating/be toxic to animals and
humans
Accumulated sediment
Pollutants build up within the tissues of animals or be deposited with sediments on the bottom of
waterways
Not distributed until filter feeders (catfish, mud crabs) or human development occurs
Leaching from tips
Leachate: rain percolates through waste, collecting dissolved materials
In the past landfill sites have been near above/below ground water = toxic chemicals, metals and
other substances leaked into water
Bioaccumulation
Chemicals in the food chain accumulate
DDT sprayed on a lake kills insects, frogs eat these insects DDT isn’t excreted
Reducing water pollution
- Don’t put oils and greasy insoluble substances down the drain. Instead put in a sealed
container
- No incinerators: rotting material encourages pathogens
- Minimise detergent use
- Pick up pet poo
- Control run off: spray before/during large rain = run off into drains
- Remove weeds: prevent spread of domestic weeds into waterways
Catchment: area of land with natural features such as hills forming its boundaries set aside for
collecting rain water
Smell: methane, ammonia, hydrogen, sulphide = organic decay
Ammonia= urine, sewage/fertiliser
Suspended and dissolved solids: sand, silt, fine organic matter smother life
Pesticides and bacteria can be transported, killing life downstream
Turbidity: drinking water should be less than 1
Temp: cold holds more oxygen
PLANTS
Autotrophs= self-feeding
Phloem- transports food
xylem- transports water
Macro minerals- needed in LARGE amounts
Potassium, calcium, phosphorus, nitrogen
together= vascular bundles
Trace elements- needed in SMALL amounts
Iron, copper, manganese
Mostly found in soils, also brought by animals, wind, rain
Deficiency= slow/irregular growth, increased likelihood of disease, discolouration
Germination
Development of the seedling
Temp: range needed to germinate is based on the environment the plant has evolved in
Most AUS species require 26*C-35*C
Oxygen: too much water or too deep can drown the seedling
Rupturing of the seed coat allows oxygen to enter
Moisture: germination cannot occur without moisture, some seed are coated in chemicals which
need to be washed away by sufficient water (desert blooms)
HALTING GERMINATION
Cold storage: 2*C will inhibit germination. The enzymes in the seed remain active and the seeds can
be kept for at least a month – some seeds will fail to germinate
Vacuum Packing: All air removed
Desiccation/Dehydration: Removing all moisture. Desiccation= process of drying seeds naturally (eg
sun) Dehydration= artificial process of water being forced out by a blast of hot air/oven
PROMOTING GERMINATION
Heat Beds: used in nurseries to maintain a constant temp for seed germination/growth. Gently
warm soil from below ensuring max. germination
Lime Pelleting: Involves applying a coating to the seed that ensures the seed and the bacteria can
survive planting and germination together. Helps balance acidic soil and prevent seed drying out
Misting: automatic watering system releasing a fine mist of water over the growing seedlings in
direct response to environmental conditions of temp/humidity.
ABRASION
Rubbing seed over a hard rough
surface to wear away
impervious seed coat
Water can penetrate seed
SMOKE
Trigger germination
Use a bee smoker, smoke tent
CUTTING
HEAT
Make a small nick in seed with
High bushfire temps crack open
sharp blade allows water to
hard seed coat and make is
enter the seed and remove
pervious to water
inhibiting chemicals.
Layers of ash provide a good
Must be planted in moist soil to source of nutrients
prevent drying
LEACHING
Process of soluble substances, like seed
germination inhibitors, are removed from the
seed by the action of water flowing through it
Seed placed in muslin and suspended in a source
of moving water
Crowding of seedlings
- Plants require space for the movement of air, to obtain light and for roots to grow
- When planted too close together there is limited resources for each seedling
- EXAMPLE: rainforests- sapling trees cannot get light
Chlorophyll in plants is responsible for the absorption of light to be converted into energy
(photosynthesis)
Adapted leaves
Low high intensity: leaves are often large with high concentration of green pigment
chlorophyll in them = dark green. Ensures ALL available light is absorbed
High light intensities: small leaves with few chloroplasts. Preventing water loss is a greater
concern = light green leaves and coated in waxy cuticle
Xerophytes
- Found in extremely dry conditions where water is scarce and transpiration from the plant
must be minimised
- Adaptations: deep tap roots/extensive shallow roots, thick waxy surface, tightly packed cells
under the surface (mesophyll),open stomates at cool times, reflect heat – grey/furry leaves,
hang leaves vertically/curl to reduce surface area
Mangroves
- Found in brackish, tidal or swampy waters
- Adapts to survive when osmosis causes salty water to leave and fresh water to come
- Pneumatophores grow upright to aerate roots
- Concentrate salt into leaves then drop the leaf
Epiphytes
- Plants that grow on another plant but are not parasitic
- EXAMPLE: orchid, staghorn fern, moss
- Absorb nutrients from falling debris and atmosphere
- Aerial roots have thick surface layers to prevent water loss
- Leaves/flowers hollow container like shape to catch rain
Supplying Adequate Water
Tensiometers: small tubes containing water planted into the soil. Porous cup at one end- when soil is
dry it draws moisture from the cup
Lignotubers
Swollen sections of woody tissue
that arise from the base of the
plant/just below ground level
Swellings store food
If separated from the parent plant
when it has finished flowering,
they can grow on to form a new
plant
Epicormic buds
Asexual outgrowths from the
parent plant that gives rise to new
breaches from dormant buds
Typically found under surface bark
of gum trees which
sprout/develop after the tree has
been damaged
When these buds sprout the tree
is coated in fine leaves all along its
branches which photosynthesis
for the plant until new leave on
the end of branches grow
Runners
Long vegetative shoots the grow
from the parent plant along the
surface of the soil
Nodes develop which send out
roots and shoots into the soil
Runners can be separated
between these nodes to form new
plants
Cloning of plants
- Bulk production of plants for sale – useful in nurseries where specific floral colours, shapes,
or disease resistance is desired
- Cloning= guaranteed to match parent
- Saves money, time, unwanted plants at a nursery to increase agricultural productivity
Disadvantage: Whole crops may be destroyed by one disease or pest because all plants are the same
Tissue Culture
- Method used to grow cloned cells of a plant from a small piece of tissue grown in a sterile
medium
- Aim: produce plants that are virus free, rapidly multiple cloned plants, propagate seedlings
for mass plantings, produce thousands of plants from one parent plant
Genetic Diversity
Variety of genetic information held in a species
- Amount of adaptation that can occur in a species is limited by the amount/kind of genetic
variation in the population
- Endangered species are so low that they have low genetic variability = less able to adapt to
changes, die out
Australian plants becomes endangered because their habitat or growth requirements are altered
- Clearing for agriculture
- Spread of urbanisation --- towns/cities
- Contamination/salination of waterways by fertiliser run off
Conservation for rare plants
- Set aside reserves
- Eliminate introduced species: introduced species are a threat, compete for nutrients
- Careful land management practices: some rare plants need occasional fire for germination
- Management of farmland: Selective clearing, leaving remnant vegetation to conserve
- Breeding programs: ensures that if small and restricted populations are destroyed there will
be other plants to reintroduce. Seed banks EXAMPLE Wollemi Pine
- Reintroduction: establish a wide distribution and large population = chance of survival in
natural conditions is increased
Seed Banks
Store dormant seeds at -18*C in a dried and
sealed moisture-proof container
Enable rare and endangered species to be
protected from habitat destruction
Gamete Banks (gene banks/germplasm
banks)
Used when seeds don’t sore easily or when
the seeds produce a genetically different
plant to a sample of the plant
Usually stored in liquid nitrogen frozen
50 years
HUMANS AT WORK
Reason for WH&S
- account for the increasing amount of injuries in the workplace
- ensure the safety of every employee within NSW
preventative actions to ensure no one in the workplace is injured.
Hazard: anything which has the potential to harm life, physically, mentally and socially.
Key actions for a safe workplace:
1. Spot the hazard
2. Assess the risk
3. Make the change
Physical: potential to
harm/cause injury physically.
This may include heavy lifting,
causing strains to your back,
noise, light
Chemical: Corrosive fumes,
chemical spills, poisons,
carcinogens
Biological: Plants, parasites,
micro-organisms causing
disease
Structure and function of the body:
- Back: causes of back pain may include, lifting heavy objects or RSI.
Increase awareness of back injuries= posters with instructions
- Start of sport season: and the stretching of tendons, ligaments and muscles.
As a result of stretching, there has been a decreasing amount of sports injuries.
- Hand: used to operate the screw driver
instructions have been issued to distinguish the way in which a screw driver should be used
PPE- Personal Protective Equipment eg hard hats
Back injuries: slouching, lifting, repetitive movements
Desk workers- regularly move, ergonomic chair, place keyboard close by etc
SINGLE PERSON LIFT= 20KG
RESPIRATION
Main purpose: absorb oxygen from the air into body and expel the waste produced (carbon dioxide)
Lungs must be moist for exchange of oxygen/carbon dioxide
- Large surface area is provided by tiny air sacks called alveoli.
- Oxygen must diffuse through the cells in the alveoli walls/capillary blood vessel walls before
it can come into contact with the blood
- Oxygen must dissolve in water before it can diffuse into blood cells.
Mucous membranes: Line the naval passages, tracheas, bronchi and alveoli.
Thick sticky mucous can trap dusts and bacteria.
Cilia: Are tiny hairs that project from the cells lining in the airways and the respiratory system.
Disease: Asbestosis
Causes: Inhalation of asbestos fibres.
Effect on respiratory system: Alveoli become inflamed, and alveoli scarring occurs.
Symptoms:
- Shortness of breath, initially only with exertion, but eventually even while resting
- Decreased tolerance for physical activity
- Coughing
- Chest pain
Prevention: Reduce level of exposure to asbestos is the best
Current direction for research: OH&S acts have addressed the issue, and it is now illegal to remove
asbestos without professionals being present.
Effect of chronic exposure to inhaled solids on lung tissue:
Hydrogen cyanide: Inhibits the action of cilia.
Ash: Caught in the lining of the bronchioles
Tar: Cancer causing components
Nitrogen Dioxide: inflames the bronchioles.
Eye
Conjunctiva: layer of ‘skin’ which protects the cornea.
Cornea: transparent, and lets light through into the pupil.
Retina: Contains special types of nerve endings:
Rods: used as night vision, pick up black and white shades.
Cones: three types of cones blue, green and yellow, which pick up different wave lengths.
Tear ducts: Secrete tears which protect the eye from drying out, and also from fine dust particles.
Eyelid: Protects the eye from dirt, dust and excess light and larger air bourn particles.
Tears keep the eye from drying out. They also wash away fine dust and dirt particles which come
into the eye. Lachrymal gland
Eye exercises are essential because if you stare for long periods of time at a fixed object, you may
suffer from visual blur, or visual fatigue.
Chemical splash to eye: open eyelid and wash with cold flowing water for 20min
Place eye pads/light clean dressing over both eyes, seek medical aid
Welding goggles: Provide a degree of eye protection while welding/ cutting are done.
Protect eyes not only from heat and optical radiation produced by the welding, (UV light) but also
from sparks/debris
Ear
Outer ear: collects sound. Transferred through middle ear to inner ear = converted into a nervous
signal Pinna= flesh part
Sound captured by the outer ear travels to the eardrum
Eardrum: lies at end of the ear canal, forms an airtight seal between the outer and middle ear
Vibrating air particles cause the drum to move back/forth
Middle ear: filled with air by the Eustachian tube – connects inner ear to back of nasal cavity.
Ensures air pressure remains the same on both sides of the eardrum
Inner ear: maze of bony canals and membranes filled with fluid and little hairs that sense vibrations
Causes of hearing loss:
Blockage of ear canal with wax, sudden intense noise can perforate the eardrum
Sensory fatigue= continual exposure to high levels of sound causing the ear to become overworked
and the cells/organs to become stressed
- Factories, worksites, mines
Earmuff: covers entire pinna so no sound can be channelled into the ear canal
Earplugs: small pieces of malleable rubber. Only suitable for low sounds
Brain
Concussion: physical injury to the brain. Causes temporary confusion, memory loss, unconsciousness
Focal injuries: bruising/localised collections of blood at various layers within the meninges.
Can be caused by lacerations and tearing of blood vessels between brain and interior of the skill
Continual head shaking
Head protection: absorbs/disperses kinetic energy gathered in a collision before it hits the brain
Helmets add time and space reducing the amount of energy transferred onto the brain
Employer determines whether hard hats are to be used no law
Softball: rules state approved batting helmets are mandatory while batting and base running
Catching helmets and throat guards must be worn by all catchers
In sport front of the head needs to be protected not just the top
Sport helmets need shock-absorbing materials
Body
Axial skeleton: core support/protects vital organs
= skull, backbone, breast bone, ribs
33 discs 7 fused together (sacrum)
Peripheral skeleton: body movement and object handling
Joint: where 2 bones meet, allow flexibility/movement
Synovial joint: most common. Allow for more flexibility/movement. Enclosed sac of synovial fluid
lubrication
Cartilage: tough elastic substance between joints. Reduces friction in the joint
Ligaments: stops joints moving further than it’s needed
Muscle: moves the bones, attached via tendons
- Load-bearing surfaces are smooth due to a layer of slippery cartilage which reduces friction.
In larger bones, joints are lubricated by synovial fluid
- Bones are held in place by ligaments (limit movement of the bone)
Repetitive Strain Injury
Textiles, admin, packaging
Persistent pain of muscles, tendons, soft tissue --- neck, wrists, elbows
Causes: excessive work rate, rapid/repetitive movements, forceful movements
Poorly designed furniture, inefficient work design
Ergonomics: aims to reduce injury via correct furniture/equipment, workflow, posture
REST
Safe Lifting
- Discs: jelly like core surrounded by fibrous ring that sits between each vertebra.
Uneven pressure= slipping, rupturing
- Ligaments: support vertebra holding it all together
Twisting= tears
Lifting: leaning forward increases disc pressure 100%
Leaning forward + twisting increases disc pressure by 400%
Stand close to object, bend knees, avoid twisting.
LOCAL ENVIRONMENT
Producers = organisms that make their own food (autotrophs) using energy from the sun; plants are
producers
Consumers= organisms that feed on other living things. Animals are consumers
Decomposers= organisms that absorb nutrients from dead tissue or waste products of organisms.
Example. Bacteria and fungi
Food Chains= simple way of showing feeding relationships and energy flows in an ecosystem.
Feeding relationships = trophic relationships
Food webs= used to show the complicated feeding relationships that are more likely to occur in an
ecosystem
Photosynthesis – changes light energy from the sun into glucose
Respiration- changes glucose into chemical energy
Biotic Factors: all of the living components or biological features of the enviro
Abiotic Factors- non-living features of the enviro
ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTIC
Viscosity
Stickiness of a fluid and its
power to resist movement
Buoyancy
Temperature Variation
AQUATIC ENVIRO
Water is more viscous than air
TERRESTRIAL ENVIRO
Air is less viscous than water
Organisms that live in water
experience an upward force or
upthrust; water is dense; water
provides some support to
organisms
Temp variations are much less
in water than on land; they are
most stable in seawater; temps
vary most in small ponds; temp
in water decreases as depth
increases
Organisms that live in air do
not experience an upthrust;
organisms that live in air must
have structure for support
Temp variation is extreme on
land; air temp in the desert
may reach 40*C during the day
and 2*C at night
Distribution= refers to the places where a species is found, its range
Abundance= refers to how many individuals there are at a specific time in a specific area
Combo of factors affect the abundance and distribution of a species
- Climate: temp, wind, rainfall, humidity, light intensity
- Availability of food
- Shelter
- Living space, nesting material, soil
Distribution and abundance of plants affects the distribution and abundance of animals, and vice
versa
Factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in aquatic enviro:
- Rate of water flow: more oxygen in moving water than in still water
- Availability of light: plants need light for photosynthesis
Factors determining the distribution and abundance of terrestrial enviro:
- Temp: in deserts distribution of animals/plants will be determined by availability of shade
- Exposure to wind and availability of shelter
- Availability of water
Competition for resources leads to a decrease in the availability of it
Long term consequences: diversity reduces, degradation of the enviro (resource depletion),
extinction
Sampling- Total counts are difficult to make when there are too many organisms, when the
organisms are very mobile or when they are scattered over too big an area
Nitrogen cycle: Main gas in the atmosphere.
Bacteria in the soil/water turns it into a soluble form.
Plants take up nitrogen to make protein
Nitrogen then returns to the soil when the plant dies and decays
Animals obtain nitrogen from eating plants/animals and release nitrogen in urine or when they die
Nitrogen is returned to atmosphere by the action of bacteria
Transect: a line through a study site- select a line which includes most of the plant groups
ADVANTAGES: useful for measuring distribution when the area is too large to do a direct observation
DISADVANTAGES: you only record organisms found across the transect.
One transect may not be an accurate representation of the site
Quadrat: represents an area of the study site, randomly selected.
Count number of organisms in each quadrat
Find average for entire site (multiply by area)
ADVANTAGES: more specific in estimating types/numbers of organisms
DISADVANTAGES: May not be accurate representation of the entire study site
Capture and Recapture
Relies on assumptions that population studied is demographically/geographically closed (animals
stay in same place), each member of the population has the same chance of being picked,
marked/unmarked will mix, marks are permanent/recognisable
WH&S
Physical: Skin irritation, sprains, strains, bites from insects
Chemical: Pollutants (pesticides, heavy metals)
Biological: exposure to disease-causing organisms such as bacteria and blue-green algae
Population size= number of individual organisms
Population density= number of individual organisms per unit area
Biomass= total weight of organisms in an area
Biomass pyramid shows the total weight of organisms at each trophic level and that biomass
decreases as trophic levels increase
Human impact
Population explosion: too many people means the land exploitation for food is increased
Pollution
Lived by the seas for 1000s of years and depend on marine resources = damage coastline
Cunjevoi (bait) removed beyond extinction
4WD, under-foot damage
Untreated sewage piped into ocean
Local government seeks to ensure new development is compatible with desirable qualities of
existing neighbourhoods.
- Ensure adequate separation between buildings
- New development is to be sensitive to vegetation
MUTUALISM
Both organisms benefit from the
relationship
Rhino and tick bird
COMMENSALISM
One organism benefits while the
other is unaffected
Remora fish and shark
ALLELOPATHY
One organism hinders the
growth of another
One species benefits while the
other cannot compete
She oak
EXPLOITATION
One species kills and ears
another
Predator prey relationship
Fox/rabbits
PARASITISM
One organism feeds on another
living organisms one being
harmed
Tapeworm, mistletoe
COMPETITION
Two species compete for same
resource