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United States History
World War I (1914-18)
The year is 1912. The European continent is on the brink1 of war. Behind closed doors Europe is
secretly splitting into two armed camps--the allied powers2 composed of Great Britain, France,
Russia and after 1915 Italy, against the central powers of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and
Bulgaria.3 Meanwhile, across the Atlantic Ocean the United States elects a new President-Woodrow Wilson.4 Woodrow and his progressive fellow5 reformers believe that they can remake
the world in such a way as to make war obsolete.6 So in spite of the growing tensions in Europe,
Woodrow Wilson chooses William Jennings Bryan,7 a pacifist,8 a believer in peace, to be his
secretary of state. But this idealistic view of the world will not be enough to alter the course
Europe has chosen to take.
In 1914, the powder keg9 explodes. Serbian terrorists10 assassinate Franz Ferdinand,11 the heir to
the Astro-Hungarian throne.12 The assassination sets off a chain reaction that spreads throughout
1
Brink: the verge or edge of something
Allied powers: in World War I, the nations allied by treaty against Germany and the other Central
Powers; originally Great Britain, France, and Russia, later joined by the U.S., Italy, Japan and other
nations.
3
Which nations constituted the allied powers? And why were they called allied Powers?
4
Wilson, (Thomas) Woodrow (1856-1924): He was the 28th president of the USA 1913-21, a Democrat.
He kept the USA out of World War I until 1917, and in January 1918 issued his 'Fourteen Points 'as a
basis for a just peace settlement. At the peace conference in Paris he secured the inclusion of the League
of Nations in individual peace treaties, but Congress did not ratify these, so the USA did not join the
League. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919. Wilson was born in Virginia, and became president of
Princeton University 1902. In 1910 he became governor of New Jersey.
5
Progressive fellow:
6
obsolete: outdated, redundant
What plan do the progressive reformers have of the world?
7
Bryan, William Jennings (1860-1925): He was a US politician who campaigned unsuccessfully for the
presidency three times: first, as the Populist and Democratic nominee 1896, then as an anti-imperialist
Democrat 1900, and finally as a Democratic tariff reformer 1908. He served as President Wilson's
secretary of state 1913-15. In the early 1920s he was a leading fundamentalist and opponent of Clarence
Darrow in the Scopes monkey trial. Bryan was born in Salem, Illinois, and educated at Illinois College
and Union College of Law, Chicago.
8
Pacifist: One who believes that violence, even in self-defence, is unjustifiable under any conditions and
that arbitration is preferable to war as a means of solving disputes. In the East, pacifism has roots in
Buddhism, and Mahatma Gandhi used nonviolent action in the struggle for Indian independence. Pacifist
sentiment in Europe before and during World War I persuaded many to become conscientious objectors
and refuse to fight, even when conscripted. They were imprisoned and in some cases executed.
9
powder keg: a small barrel used to store gunpowder or a potential source of violence, war, disaster
10
Serbian terrorists: While visiting Sarajevo, capital of the Austro-Hungarian province of BosniaHerzegovina, 28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir of the Austro-Hungarian emperor, was
assassinated by a Bosnian student, Gavrilo Prinzip, backed by the Serbian nationalist Black Hand
organization.
11
Franz Ferdinand: He was assassinated in Sarajevo. Widespread nationalistic unrest in the Balkan
provinces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire had resulted in strained relations between Austria-Hungary
and Serbia, regarded as sponsor of the nationalist movements. While visiting Sarajevo, capital of the
Austro-Hungarian province of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir of the
Austro-Hungarian emperor, was assassinated by a Bosnian student, Gavrilo Prinzip, backed by the
Serbian nationalist Black Hand organization. The Austro-Hungarian government sought to punish Serbia
for the crime and Germany promised support, despite the danger of involving Russia, ultimate patron of
the Balkan nationalist movements. Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum 23 July,
2
14
Europe. After Austria declares war on Serbia on July 28th, one nation after another is drawn into
the conflict. Russia, which had a secret treaty with Serbia, prepares for war against Austria.
Germany then declares war on Russia and Russia's ally. France then invades Belgium to bypass
French defenses. On August 4th Great Britain declares war on Germany, and two days later Russia
and Austro-Hungary formally enter the conflict. Thus begins a war that would change the world
forever.
The Great War
The New
Deadly
Toys13
Europe pours its scientific genius and vast industrial powers into the production of new weapons
of mass destruction. Long range high velocity rifles14 and artillery, machine guns and poison gas,
tanks and airplanes turn war into a nightmare of death and destruction.15 By the end of the first
year of war, 25 thousand miles of heavily fortified trenches, spider webbed course stretching from
Belgium to Austria.
As in all wars, the foot soldier is the decisive focus of gains and losses.16 In senseless suicidal
charges into the no-man's land17 between the trenches, hundreds of thousands of soldiers are
mowed down by artillery fire, machine guns or choked by poison gas.
"As far as you can see there, all these bodies lying, literally thousands of them, some without legs,
some are legs without bodies, arms without bodies--terrible sight. It didn't seem impossible. It
didn't get inside me or scare me. But it just made me wonder that these could've been men. Made
me wonder what's it was all about."18
Neutrality19
When the Great War begins, Americans see no reason to get involved on either side. President
Wilson calls for the United States to be neutral in fact as well as in name; impartial in thought as
well as in action. Preferring to avoid any entanglements20 that might threaten the nation's moral
requesting a reply within 48 hours. Serbia, on Russian advice, agreed to all the demands except two
which conflicted with its authority as a sovereign state. Austro-Hungarian armies near the Serbian border
were mobilized. Austrian attack on Belgrade Russia mobilized its forces against Austria-Hungary 29 July.
On the same day Austrian artillery bombarded the Serbian capital, Belgrade, while the German High Seas
Fleet was transferred from the Baltic to the North Sea. News of the Russian mobilization reached Berlin
31 July; Germany demanded that Russian mobilization should cease, and asked France for a notification
by 1 p.m. the following day that it would remain neutral in the event of a Russo-German war, despite
treaty obligations to Russia. Long-established German war plans envisaged a crushing blow against
France as a precursor to concentration against a Russian invasion.
12
Who was responsible for assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand? And what consequences
followed the Archduke's assassination?
13
What are the "deadly new toys" used in the Great War?
14
High velocity rifles: long range rifles that could fire quickly and rapidly
15
Why did the war become a nightmare of death and destruction?
16
Why is the foot soldier such a decisive factor in all wars?
17
No-man's land: a piece of land, usually wasteland, to which no one has a recognized title or the
unoccupied region separating opposing armies.
18
What feeling do you get while listening to this statement about the war?
19
What does the American policy of neutrality or isolationism imply?
20
Entanglements: to complicate a situation
14
integrity and independence, the United States, since the time of George Washington,21 pursues a
policy of isolationism22 with regards to Europe.
The United States has many immigrants from nations on both sides of the conflict, including
some 10 million with ties to Germany or Austria-Hungary. Prominent Americans of all political
persuasions want the U.S. to stay out of the conflict. Progressives like Jane Adams speak out
against war as an instrument of national policy.23
Allen F. Davis, Professor of History, Temple University: "In fact in 1914, some women marched
in the black, down the streets of South Avenue protesting the War. At the same time some young
men couldn't wait to get in and dropped out of college, dropped out of high school, became
ambulance drivers or joined the French Foreign Legion. It was a great adventure, and if you got
left out, you got left out of the greatest adventure of your lifetime."24
Practically, the entire political Left led by Eugene Debs25 and the Socialist Party condemned the
War as capitalist imperialism.26 Even prominent industrialists including Andrew Carnegie27 and
21
Washington, George (1732-1799): He was the Commander of the American forces during the
American Revolutionary War and 1st president of the United States 1789-97; known as the father of his
country. An experienced soldier, he had fought in campaigns against the French during the French and
Indian Wars. He was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses 1759 and was a leader of the Virginia
militia, gaining valuable exposure to wilderness fighting. As a strong opponent of the British
government's policy, he sat in the Continental Congresses of 1774 and 1775, and on the outbreak of the
American Revolution was chosen commander in chief of the Continental army. After many setbacks, he
accepted the surrender of British general Cornwallis at Yorktown 1781.
22
Isolationism: In politics, concentration on internal rather than foreign affairs; a foreign policy having no
interest in international affairs that do not affect the country's own interests. In the USA, isolationism is
usually associated with the Republican Party, especially politicians of the Midwest (for example, the
Neutrality Acts 1935-39). Intervention by the USA in both world wars was initially resisted. In the 1960s
some Republicans demanded the removal of the United Nations from American soil.
23
Who are the people who want the U.S. to stay out of the conflict?
24
Why were the young men so eager to join the war?
25
Debs, Eugene V(ictor) (1855-1926): He was a US labour leader and socialist who organized the Social
Democratic Party 1897. He was the founder and first president of the American Railway Union 1893, and
was imprisoned for six months in 1894 for defying a federal injunction to end the Pullman strike in
Chicago. He was socialist candidate for the presidency in every election from 1900 to 1920, except that of
1916. Debs was born in Terre Haute, Indiana, and was elected to the Indiana State legislature 1884. He
opposed US intervention in World War I and was imprisoned 1918 for allegedly advocating resistance to
conscription, but was pardoned by President Harding 1921. In 1920 he polled nearly 1 million votes, the
highest socialist vote ever in a US presidential election, despite having to conduct the campaign from a
federal penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia.
26
Capitalist imperialism: the policy and practice of forming and maintaining an empire in seeking to
control raw materials and world markets by the conquest of other countries, the establishment of colonies.

Who was Eugene Debs? And why did he condemn the war?
Carnegie, Andrew (1835-1919): He was a US industrialist and philanthropist, born in Scotland, who
developed the Pittsburgh iron and steel industries, making the USA the world's leading producer. He
endowed public libraries, education, and various research trusts. Carnegie invested successfully in
railways, land, and oil. From 1873 he engaged in steel making, adopting new techniques. Having built up
a vast empire, he disposed of it to the US Steel Trust 1901. After his death the Carnegie trusts continued
his philanthropic activities. Carnegie Hall in New York, opened Carnegie was attacked by some as an
exploiter of labour and an unscrupulous business competitor. However, on retirement he moved to Skibo
Castle in Sutherland, Scotland, and used his wealth to endow libraries and universities, the Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace, and other good causes. He distributed over £10 million for the
provision and equipment of libraries in the USA and other English-speaking countries, and in 1901 gave
27
14
Henry Ford28 who bankrolled anti-war activities, believed that entering the War would be a great
mistake. Ford, in fact spends almost half a million dollars in December 1915 to send more than a
hundred men and women on a peace ship to Europe in the hope of negotiating an end to the war.
But the war would not be ended by symbolic gestures.
The Road to
War
US business profited handsomely from supplying food and arms to the combatants on both sides.
But both the British and the Germans pressured U.S. businesses to stop trading with their
enemies.29
By the end of 1914, a British Naval Blockade in the North Atlantic intercepts all ships bound for
the Central powers. After that, U.S. trade with England and France grows, while trade with the
Central Powers declines.
Nell Irvin Painter, Professor of History, Princeton University: "So many American said, "You
know, let the Europeans just do it themselves. We don't want to get involved." But as the years
went by, American banks lent more and more money to the Allies and the American economy got
more and more involved with the Allied side."
Increasingly desperate to end the Blockade, the German Navy launches a devastating new
weapon--the U-boat. And in February 1915 announces its own Naval Blockade of Great Britain,
In early May a U-boat30 sinks a British passenger liner Lusitania31 off the coast of Ireland killing
128 Americans.32
Extra
Record Herald
Extra
LUSITANIA SUNK BY SUB!
TWICE TORPEDOED OFF IRISH COAST, SINKS IN 15 MINUTES. CAPT.
TURNER SAVED. FROHMAN AND VANDERBILDT MISSING. WASHINGTON
BELIEVES THAT A GRAVE CRISIS IS AT HAND.
The United States is on the brink of a war. Americans are outraged by the German attack but
Wilson and Congress resist the urge for revenge. In 1916, Woodrow Wilson is reelected President
of the United States under the slogan,
"He Kept Us Out of War"
st
On January 31 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine attacks. Tensions mount further
when the United States learns that Germany had secretly urged Mexico to join the war against the
£2 million to provide class fees for Scottish students. In 1903 Carnegie founded the Dunfermline Trust
with an income of £25,000 for the improvement of his hometown.
28
Ford, Henry (1863-1947): He was a famous US automobile manufacturer. He built his first car 1896
and founded the Ford Motor Company 1903. His Model T (1908-27) was the first car to be constructed
solely by assembly-line methods and to be mass-marketed; 15 million of these cars were sold. Ford's
innovative policies, such as a $5 daily minimum wage (at the time nearly double the average figure in
Detroit) and a five-day working week, revolutionized employment practices, but he opposed the
introduction of trade unions. In 1928 he launched the Model A, a stepped-up version of the Model T. Ford
was born in Dearborn, Michigan, and apprenticed to a Detroit machinist 1878.
 Write a note on industrialists Andrew Carnegie and Henry Ford. What did they do for peace?
29
How did U.S. business profit through the War?
30
U-boat: Comes from the German word unterseeboot, which means an undersea boat. During the First
World War a U-boat meant a German submarine, one of the most dreaded machines of sea warfare.
31
Lusitania: This was an ocean liner sunk by a German submarine on 7 th May 1915 with the loss of 1,200
lives, including some US citizens; its destruction helped to bring the USA into World War I.
32
Explain the British naval blockade of 1914. And what strategy did Germany employ to break it?
 What happened to passenger liner Lusitania?
14
United States. In return Germany promises to help Mexico recover all the lands it had lost in the
Mexican-American War.33 Throughout March 1917, U-boats sink U.S. ships without warning.
Bruce Kuklick, Killebrew Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania: "The Germans
thought that they could bring Britain and France to their knees more quickly if Britain and France
weren't getting goods from the United States. And it's the submarine warfare, which propels
Wilson to make war. And he's come to believe by 1917 that the United States can't live with the
German victory, that it's going to change our political economy, we're not going to be able to
trade with the Germans, we're not going to be able to deal with the anti-democratic country like
he thought Germany was."34
On April 2nd 1917, Wilson appears before a Special Session of Congress to ask for a declaration
of war.
"The world must be made safe for democracy. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no
conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the
sacrifices we shall freely make. We are, but one of the champions of the rights of mankind."
The Dough Boys35
The United States enters the war woefully unprepared for combat.
New York Star Bulletin
YANKS ARE COMING
There are only 200,000 men in uniform in early 1917. After Congress' Declaration of War, a
million men volunteered to serve their country. To field an army Congress passes the Selective
Service Act, which quickly drafts an additional 3 million young men into the military. So who are
the young American doughboys? The typical inductee is single, 22 years old, 5 feet 7 inches tall,
141 pounds. One in five are foreign born. 400 thousand are African American. One out of three
are so unhealthy they flunk their physicals. One out of three can't read or write. So many are
ignorant of the reasons they are going to war that worried government officials place a copy of
the President's war message in every soldier's knapsack. One of the ways Wilson convinces
opponents of the war to accept a draft is by arguing that it would speed the Americanization of
the immigrants.36
33
Mexican-American War: War between the USA and Mexico 1846-48, begun in territory disputed
between Texas (annexed by the USA 1845 but claimed by Mexico) and Mexico. It began when General
Zachary Taylor invaded New Mexico after efforts to purchase what are now California and New Mexico
failed. Mexico City was taken 1847, and under the Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo that ended the war, the
USA acquired New Mexico and California, as well as clear title to Texas in exchange for $15 million.
Tensions were high between the USA and Mexico as a result of continuing border disputes and the
annexation of Texas. President James Polk determined to pursue his notion of manifest destiny for the
USA and dispatched Taylor to add the disputed territories, by force if necessary. After repeated defeats
and invasion of its home territory, a Mexican government was formed that was willing to negotiate a
settlement. Presidential envoy Nicholas Trist was ordered home, but he ignored his orders and negotiated
the pact ceding vast Mexican territories to the USA. Polk was enraged but had little choice but to submit
the exceptionally favorable treaty to the Senate, which ratified it.
34
Why did German submarine attacks prompt Woodrow Wilson to declare war on Germany?
Doughboy: It was a nickname for a US infantry soldier in the two world wars, especially World War I.
 Who were the Doughboys? And what did they do in the war?
36
Why did Wilson believe that the war would lead to the Americanization of the immigrants?
35
14
"Military tents where they all sleep side by side, rank next to the public schools as one of the
great agents of democratization."
Theodore Roosevelt37
IF you believe
that the
traffic in alcohol
does more harm
than good-Help stop it!
Progressive reformers used the war as an opportunity to heighten moral standards.
"The President thought that the army was a wonderful chance to educate a large number of people.
At the same time they tried to influence the soldiers to prevent them from drinking which was a
progressive measure of prohibition. Their belief was that they train these soldiers so that when
they came back to civilian life they would be better citizens."
"Men must live straight, if they are to shoot straight," cautioned Secretary of the Navy Josephus
Daniels.
To conserve grain necessary for food, a wartime prohibition on the manufacture of alcoholic
beverages goes into effect in 1917.38
America at War
While the army is training new soldiers, the nation works round the clock, pouring its energy and
resources into the war effort. Wars cost a tremendous amount of money. To pay for the war,
Congress passes new taxes on corporate profits and imposes stiff personal income taxes for the
first time.39
CHARLIE CHAPLIN
DOUGLAS FAIRBANKS40
Rallied by Hollywood stars, Americans of all classes buy Liberty Bonds to help win the war.
The Federal Government mobilizes the entire American economy, taking unprecedented control
through a series of boards and agencies.
Charles Hardy, Professor of History, West Chester University: "The government sets up the War
Industries Board and brings in executives from top corporations to supervise the conversion of
American factories and shops from a peacetime to a wartime economy. And there's a very close
cooperation between business and government that would continue after the war ends."41
The new Fuel Administration allocates the coal resources necessary for operation of the nation's
railroads and factories. The Railroad War Board takes over and coordinates the nation's sprawling
transportation system. Perhaps the most successful agency is the Food Administration which
under the slogan,
"Food
37
Roosevelt, Theodore (1858-1919): He was the 26th president of the USA 1901-09, a Republican. After
serving as governor of New York 1898-1900 he became vice president to McKinley, whom he succeeded
as president on McKinley's assassination 1901. He campaigned against the great trusts (associations of
enterprises that reduce competition), while carrying on a jingoist foreign policy designed to enforce US
supremacy over Latin America. At age 42, Roosevelt was the youngest person to become president of the
USA. In office he became more liberal. He tackled business monopolies, initiated measures for the
conservation of national resources, and introduced the Pure Food and Drug Act.
38
What led the government to raise the moral standards in the army?
39
What were the new taxes that were levied on the people by the Congress?
40
Write a note on Hollywood actors Charlie Chaplin and Douglas Fairbanks? What role did they
play during the First World War?
41
What role did the War industries Board play?
14
will win
the war!"42
dramatically increases the domestic production of wheat and other grain from 45 million acres in
1917 to 75 million in 1919.43
Campaigns to
"Serve
Just
Enough"
and
"Use
All
Left-Overs
"Wheatless
Mondays"
"Meatless
Tuesdays"
and
Porkless
Thursdays
And
Saturdays
result in substantial conservation of food resources. It not only put cheap food on American
tables, but also war-torn Europe. The nation's workers also benefit as the new National War
Labor Board arbitrates labor disputes, establishes an 8-hour day for war workers and also
endorses equal pay for women workers. Production soars as American factories pour out clothing,
munitions and ships in record time.44
The Great
Migration45
Factories working round the clock require unprecedented numbers of workers.
Professor Bruce Kukliek: "The Great War had a tremendous impact on the migration of people in
the country, partly because of the fact that the war had cut off immigration from Europe and there
was a great need for workers."
Professor Charles Hardy: "So American businessmen face a dilemma. Where they're going to get
the workers for their factories? And the place they find them is among African Americans in the
South, who up until the First World War had been excluded from industrial employment except
as strike breakers. So with these new opportunities you have the beginnings of what becomes
known as the Great Migration."
More than 400 thousand African American men and women head north to the industrial cities.
The Great Migration unleashed by the First World War continues throughout the 1920s as more
than a million and half men and women would seek new lives in urban areas of the United States.
Women at Work
MR. PRESIDENT
YOU SAY "LIBERTY IS THE
42
Why was the slogan "Food for all!" made popular? Did it achieve the desired result?
How much was the increase in the domestic production of wheat between 1917 and 1919?
44
What concessions did the new National War Labor Board provide to labor workers?
45
Write a note on the Great Migration.
43
14
FUNDAMENTAL DEMAND
OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT"
During the Great War about a million women also joined the labor force for the first time. And
many of the nation's 8 million working women switch from low-paying domestic service to
higher-paying industrial jobs. Women's contributions to the war effort pushed their campaign for
suffrage to its successful conclusion with the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920.46
VOTE
League of Women Voters
The World War brings to women the right to vote.
Mind Mobilization
To win the war the nation needs to mobilize people's minds as well as their bodies. The Wilson
administration sets up the CPI--the Committee on Public Information to rally American support
of the Allied cause.47 The CPI passes out 75 million pieces of patriotic literature and trains
hundreds of volunteers called "Four Minute Men" to give speeches in movie theaters. The CPI's
mind mobilization campaign helps to whip the public into a frenzy of patriotism to contribute to a
climate of suspicion and anti-German hysteria.
Professor Kukliek: "Suddenly, when the war broke out and the United States found herself
fighting Germany. The Germans were turned from being representatives of culture and
civilization to being barbaric Huns. So an anti-German feeling took over the country to the point
where people started changing street names from Kaiser Avenue to Wilson Street. German
measles was outlawed and became Liberty measles. Sauerkraut was outlawed and became Liberty
Cabbage. German music was banned from symphony halls, the German language was forbidden
to be taught in American high schools. Some Germans were even lynched."
Vigilante groups like the America Protective League mobilized close to a quarter million selfappointed agents to spy on their neighbors and fellow workers.
Espionage and
Sedition Acts48
Law enforcement officials tolerate little criticism of American values and institutions during
wartime. Perceiving opposition to government policies as treason the Wilson administration
passes the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918, which let's the government crack
down on dissenters. The government prosecutes more than 2000 people under these laws
including Socialist labor leader Eugene Debs who receives a 10-year prison term for a speech
accusing the United States of imperialism for entering the war.
Few Americans protest government's violation of the Bill of Rights.49 The country's attention is
focussed overseas on the exploits of the U.S. Expeditionary Force.
46
What privileges did the 19th Amendment give to women?
Why did the CPI need to launch a mind mobilization campaign. Was the campaign successful?
48
Write a note on the Espionage and Sedition Acts?
49
Bill of Rights: In the USA, the first ten amendments to the US Constitution incorporated in 1791:
1 guarantees freedom of worship, of speech, of the press, of assembly, and to petition the government;
2 grants the right to keep and bear arms;
3 prohibits billeting of soldiers in private homes in peacetime;
4 forbids unreasonable search and seizure;
5 guarantees none be `deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law or compelled in any
criminal case to be a witness against himself or herself;
6 grants the right to speedy trial, to call witnesses, and to have defence counsel;
7 grants the right to trial by jury of one's peers;
8 prevents the infliction of excessive bail or fines, or "cruel and unusual punishment";
47
14
Over There
To head the American Expeditionary Force, President Wilson selects General John J. Blackjack
Pergine, a tough career soldier who pursued Pancho Villa50 into Mexico in 1916.51
In June 1917 the first 15,000 American Doughboys arrive in France, just in time to join the
French and English in defense of a massive German offensive. On the Eastern Front, Germany
pounds Russia into submission. In March 1917 the Russian monarchy collapses. Promising peace,
land and bread Bolshevik revolutionaries52 led by Vladimir Lenin53 takes control of the world's
largest nation and establish the world's first Communist government.54 The new Russian
government then pulls out of the war and signs the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 55 with Germany on
March 3rd 1918.56 Concentrating all its forces on the Western front, the Germans in March 1918
launch a major offense, and by May advance within 50 miles of Paris. American soldiers see their
first action helping the French repel the Germans in the battles of Château-Thierry57 and
Belleauwood.58 In mid-July, U.S. soldiers help spearhead a counter offensive that drives back the
Germans to their final defensive stand at the Meuse-Argonne Forest.59 Fresh U.S. troops and
supplies turn the tide. Demoralized and out of supplies, Germany calls for peace.60
9, 10 provide a safeguard to the states and people for all rights not specifically delegated to the central
government.
Not originally part of the draft of the Constitution, the Bill of Rights was mooted during the period of
ratification. Twelve amendments were proposed by Congress 1789; the ten now called the Bill of Rights
were ratified 1791.
50
Francisco Pancho Villa (1877-1932): The years after Diaz were marked by political and military
strife with the USA, culminating in the unsuccessful US expedition 1916-17 to kill the revolutionary
Pancho Villa (1877-1923).
51
Who was Pancho Villa?
52
Bolshevik revolutionaries: Bolshevik comes from the Russian word bolshinstvo or a majority
Bolsheviks were members of the majority of the Russian Social Democratic Party who split from
the Mensheviks 1903. The Bolsheviks, under Lenin, advocated the destruction of capitalist political and
economic institutions and the setting-up of a socialist state with power in the hands of the workers. The
Bolsheviks set the Russian Revolution 1917 in motion. They changed their name to the Russian
Communist Party 1918.
53
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich (1870-1924) Lenin was a Russian revolutionary, the first leader of the USSR,
and a communist theoretician. Active in the 1905 Revolution, Lenin had to leave Russia when it failed,
settling in Switzerland 1914. He returned to Russia after the February revolution of 1917. He led the
Bolshevik revolution Nov 1917 and became leader of a Soviet government, concluded peace with
Germany, and organized a successful resistance to White Russian uprisings and foreign intervention
1918-20. His modification of traditional Marxist doctrine to fit conditions prevailing in Russia became
known as Marxism-Leninism, the basis of communist ideology.
54
Who were the Bolsheviks? Why did they come into power?
55
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: It was a bilateral treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between Russia and Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and their allies. Under its terms, Russia agreed to recognize the independence of
Georgia, Ukraine, Poland, and the Baltic States and to pay heavy compensation. Under the November
1918 Armistice that ended World War I, the treaty was annulled, since Russia was one of the winning
allies.
56
Why did the Russian government sign the Treat of Brest-Litovsk with Germany?
57
Battle of Château-Thierry: In World War I, US victory over German troops May-June 1918 in northern
France during the German offensive on the Marne.
58
Write a note on the Battle of Chateau-Thierry.
59
Meuse-Argonne campaign: In World War I, US-French offensive against the Germans Sept-Nov 1918.
The campaign made vital strategic gains; the Montmedy-Sedan and Metz-Mézières railway lines were
rendered useless to the Germans, depriving them of a valuable lifeline, and the German left wing was
secured while the British advance in Flanders rolled back the right. While US troops attacked from the
14
By the time it's over, the Great War claims the lives of 8 million soldiers and close to 7 million
civilians. During the 18 months of the United States involvement, close to 51,000 American
servicemen are killed in action. Another 60,000 die from other causes, mainly an influenza panendemic that sweeps the world in 1918, killing a half million American civilians and close to 20
million people world wide.
Wilson's
Fourteen Points61
On the 11th hour, of the 11th day of the 11th month, in 1918 in a railroad car, nestled in the forest
of Compiègne France,62 the final Armistice is negotiated. The war is over.
President Wilson arrives in France with his own idealistic Fourteen Point Plan that he hopes will
serve as a blueprint for the post-war world. The plan includes,
A call for
the end of
secret diplomacy,
Freedom
of the seas
Elimination of
trade barriers
Arms Reduction
and
The right of nations
controlled by
European powers
to political
self-determination!
His last point, which he views as a mechanism for achieving all the others, is an international
League
of
Nations,
a forum in which the nations of the world can settle their disputes without resorting to war. But
the allied leaders had other ideas. Georges Clemenceau of France63 and Britain's David Lloyd
George64 lust for revenge and are offended by Wilson's self-righteous moralizing. Ignoring
west 26 Sept 1918, capturing Varennes and Montfaucon, the French attacked in Champagne. The attack
was renewed 4 Oct, eventually breaching the Kreimhilde Line and capturing Grandpré. By November 1 st
the US troops had advanced some 6 kilometers, taking Buzancy on 2 nd November, and the Germans were
in rapid retreat. By 7th November the Americans held the left bank of the Meuse opposite Sedan, and the
bridge at Stenay was taken on 10th November However, the US forces paid a heavy price for their gains:
some 26,227 dead and 96,788 wounded.
60
Why did the Germans call for peace?
61
What was Wilson's Fourteen Points proposal? And was it successful?
62
Compiègne is a town in Oise département, France, on the river Oise near its confluence with the river
Aisne; population (1990) 44,700. It has an enormous château, built by Louis XV. The armistices of 1918
and 1940 were signed (the latter by Hitler and Pétain) in a railway coach in the forest of Compiègne.
63
Clemenceau, Georges (1841-1929): He was a French politician and journalist (prominent in the defence
of Alfred Dreyfus). He was Prime Minister 1906-09 and 1917-20. After World War I he presided over the
peace conference in Paris that drew up the Treaty of Versailles, but failed to secure for France the Rhine
as a frontier.
64
David Lloyd George or 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (1863-1945): He was a Welsh Liberal
politician and the Prime Minister of Britain from 1916 to 1922. A pioneer of social reform, as Chancellor
14
Wilson's proposal, the victors carve up their former enemies' territories. In order to see his League
of Nations become a reality, Wilson gives in to French and British demands for a War Guilt
Clause blaming Germany for the war. Reparations65 to paid to the French and British by Germany
are later set at 33 billion dollars.66
$ 33 billion
Wilson's moralism gets him into further difficulties in Russia. Opposed to Lenin's New Order,67
the President joins other nations in an economic and naval blockade of the Soviet Union and
sends U.S. troops to Russia to help overthrow the Bolsheviks. The troops remain until 1920
souring Soviet-American relations for the next two decades.
When he returns home in 1919, Wilson meets stiff Senate opposition to the peace treaty. To get it
ratified he takes his case to the people of the United States. But the strain of an extensive
speaking tour proves too much for the ailing 62-years old President. Wilson collapses from a
stroke in Pueblo, Colorado in late September, and a week later, suffers a second massive stroke
that leave him paralyzed on one side of his body. Wilson's stubbornness causes another paralysis.
The United States never does sign the Versailles Treaty or join the League of Nations. And by
1920, the nation is facing other more immediate problems.
Post-War World
Gary B. Nash, Professor of History, UCLA: "African Americans played an important role in
World War One. They were not usually in combat units. They were usually in auxiliary roles in
the war, that they were part of the American Expeditionary Forces in France, that helped in World
War One and they found that they were better received often in France, let's say in Paris, than
they were in American cities. They knew that they had fought "to keep the world safe for
democracy" as Woodrow Wilson phrased it and yet at home they weren't first class citizens."68
Professor Nell Painter: "And so when black soldiers came back they were liable to be lynched
that is to be murdered even in their uniforms because there was so much fear about what they
would do with their renewed sense of their own humanity."
Wartime inflation sends the cost of living soaring. When the booming economy slumps in 1919
as it strains to convert to peacetime production, more than 4 million workers, one out of every
five, go on strike --a proportion never since equaled.
of the Exchequer 1908-15 he introduced old-age pensions 1908 and health and unemployment insurance
1911. High unemployment, intervention in the Russian Civil War, and use of the military police force, the
Black and Tans, in Ireland eroded his support as Prime Minister, and the creation of the Irish Free State
1921 and his pro-Greek policy against the Turks caused the collapse of his coalition government.
65
Reparation or compensation paid by countries that start wars in which they are defeated, as by
Germany in both world wars. Iraq is required to pay reparations, under the terms of a United Nations
resolution, after its defeat in the 1991 Gulf War.
66
How much war reparation did Germany had to pay to France and Britain?
67
New Economic Policy (NEP) Economic policy of the USSR 1921-29 devised by the Soviet leader
Lenin. Rather than requisitioning all agricultural produce above a stated subsistence allowance, the state
requisitioned only a fixed proportion of the surplus; the rest could be traded freely by the peasant. The
NEP thus reinstated a limited form of free-market trading, although the state retained complete control of
major industries.
68
What role did Afro-Americans play during the War?
14
Professor Nell Pinter: "So we have economic competition after the war and also a very tense
racial situation. And the two of those two together produced what was called the Red Summer of
1919, in which there were about 20 racial outbreaks. The biggest in Chicago."69
The National Guard is called in, after days of shooting and fighting leaves 30 dead and more than
500 people wounded.
The Red Scare70
The strikes of 1919 rocked the nation. Shipyard workers in Seattle, clothing workers in New York
and salt-coal miners in West Virginia, all strike for better wages and shorter workweeks. In
September 300,000 steelworkers leave their jobs and shut down the industry. The steel companies
strike back with a vengeance, beating and shooting strikers. To gain public support, the
companies portray the strikes not as labor disputes but as an attempted revolution inspired by
foreign radicals.71
Professor Charles Hardy: "When the war ends, Americans were unable to turn off their fear of
foreigners and as strikes and labor actions paralyzed the nation in 1919, the belief became
widespread that Communists and socialists and other people deemed subversives or antiAmerican were causing problems. They are rounded up in what became known as the Red Scare.
After a bomb explodes outside the home of attorney general A. Mitchell Palmer, Palmer stages a
series of raids.72
Professor Kukliek: "The government made raids on people that they considered radical or
subversive or un-American, and for quite a long time, anybody who tried to criticize the
government, or suggest that maybe things could be done in a different way was simply denounced
as un-American. Some people had been put in prison during the war for simply questioning
certain things that the government was doing. So it was a time of great hysteria."
The nativist sentiment peaks right after the war. Those thinking of themselves as one hundred
percent Americans are repulsed at the sight of some 800 thousand immigrants stepping ashore in
1920 and 1921 most of them from Southern and Eastern Europe.73
Professor Kukliek: "Right after World War One we got things like the KKK.74 The Ku Klux
Klan75 is an example of a large Protestant group fearing Blacks, Italian, Jews, the organization of
69
Write a note on the Red Summer on 1919.
What were the socio-economic reasons that led to the Red Scare?
71
Write a note on the labor disputes of 1919.
72
Palmer, A(lexander) Mitchell (1872-1936): He was a US public official. He held office in the US
House of Representatives 1909-15. A Quaker, he declined an appointment as secretary of war under
President Wilson, and served instead as custodian of alien property during World War I. As US attorney
general 1919-21, he led the controversial "Palmer raids" against alleged political radicals during the Red
Scare.
73
What was the nativist sentiment? And why did it gain momentum?
74
Write a note on the KKK.
75
Ku Klux Klan: US secret society dedicated to white supremacy. It was founded 1866 to oppose
Reconstruction in the Southern states after the American Civil War and to deny political rights to the
black population. Members wore hooded white robes to hide their identity, and burned crosses at their
nighttime meetings. In the late 20th century the Klan evolved into a paramilitary extremist group and
forged loose ties with other white supremacist groups. It was originally headed by former Confederate
general Nathan Bedford Forrest and was disbanded 1869 under pressure from members who opposed
violence. Scattered groups continued a campaign of lynching and flogging, prompting the government to
pass the restrictive Ku Klux Klan Acts of 1871. The society re-emerged 1915 in Atlanta, Georgia, and
increased in strength during the 1920s as a racist, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic, and anticommunist
organization, with membership reaching more than 4 million. It was publicized in the 1960s for
70
14
super American societies that praise America and want to resist anything else. So it's an
exaggerated feeling of patriotism that's what nativism is."
The fear of foreigners unleashed by the war continues without challenge into the 1920s. In 1921
Congress passes an Emergency Quota Act to stem the flow of immigrants. Later more restrictive
legislation cuts the flood of immigrants to America's shores to a trickle for decades to come.
The Impact of the
Great War on
America
Professor Painter: "In the aftermath the United States was one of the strongest countries in the
Western world and for the first time became a creditor nation as opposed to a debtor nation, that
is to say, that more money was owed to Americans than Americans owed to other people. So this
is the beginning of the United States becoming the premier economic power in the world."
Encouraged by government wartime policies, big businesses, bigger than ever!
LIBERTY
CANNOT
DIE
Culturally the war intensifies the deep divisions in society and fuels the resurgence of nativism. It
also continues certain progressive era reforms adding two amendments to the Constitution, giving
women the right to vote and outline the manufacture, sale or distribution of alcoholic beverages.
Weary of crusades and war, Americans faced the 1920s hoping for a return to normalcy, but
unclear as to what the new post-war world will bring.76
terrorizing civil-rights activists and organizing racist demonstrations. In the 1990s it began actively
recruiting and organizing in the UK, with membership coming primarily from existing extreme-right
groupings.
76
World War I (1914-18): This Great War was fought between the Central European Powers (Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and allies) on one side and the Triple Entente (Britain and the British Empire, France,
and Russia) and their allies, including the USA (which entered 1917), on the other side. An estimated 10
million lives were lost and twice that number were wounded. It was fought on the eastern and western
fronts, in the Middle East, in Africa, and at sea.
a) Underlying causes were nationalism and trade barriers: By the early 20th century, the countries of
Western Europe had reached a high level of material prosperity. However, competition for trade markets
and imperial possessions worldwide had led to a growth of nationalistic sentiment. This nationalism
created great political tension between the single-nation states such as France and Germany, and
threatened the stability of multi-nation states such as Austria-Hungary. These tensions were reflected in
jingoistic propaganda, an arms race between the major powers, and trade barriers and tariffs, which
exacerbated tensions further.
b) German militarism and expansionism: In Germany, the close involvement of the military aristocracy
in politics and commerce gave these tensions a militaristic slant. Germany's existence as a unified state
dated only from 1870, and its late start in the European scramble for world empires prompted some
Germans to look to territorial expansion in Europe itself as a means of making up lost ground. This
attitude built on a deep-seated German fear of "the Russian menace."
Even the least militaristic of Germans understood the need for access to raw materials, ready-made trade
markets, and outlets in colonial possessions for their country's surplus people that the empire had brought
to Britain. The small German colonial empire had to be guarded by a powerful navy, but the expansion of
the German navy was regarded as a direct threat in Britain. Similarly, German diplomatic efforts to
recover the stability of Bismarck's day in Europe by combining Central Europe into a formidable bloc
exacerbated fears of German expansionism in France and Russia.
c) British fears: In 1902 Lord Lansdowne, British foreign secretary, abandoned the previous British
policy of isolation. He concluded the Anglo-Japanese Treaty, relieving Britain of large naval
commitments in the Pacific, and the 'Entente Cordiale' with France 1904.
14
d) USA enters the war April 1917: At the outbreak of the war, there had been much sympathy for
Germany in the USA, compounded by the British maritime policy, which interfered with US shipping. In
the early months of 1915, Germany introduced new guidelines for U-boat (submarine) attacks and warned
the USA that neutral ships might be sunk. The full implication of this was brought home to the US public
by the sinking of the liner Lusitania 7 May 1915 with the loss of 1,200 lives, including US citizens; the
outcry was such that Germany suspended its U-boat campaign. Relations were further strained by
revelations about the activities of German agents in the USA. The Republicans stirred up public sentiment
against President Woodrow Wilson's policy of strict neutrality throughout 1916 but he still secured reelection in Nov. Wilson tried unsuccessfully to mediate between the two sides Dec 1916. On 13 Jan 1917
the German government announced that all sea traffic within sea areas adjoining Britain, France, and Italy,
and in the eastern Mediterranean, would 'without further notice be prevented by all weapons,' a return to
unrestricted submarine warfare. This was finally too much even for Wilson and diplomatic relations with
Germany were severed on February 3rd. The publication of the Zimmermann Telegram 1 March caused
widespread outrage and when German submarines sank six US vessels shortly after there was no chance
of the US remaining neutral. War was formally declared 6 April. The entry of the USA into the war was
of immediate economic and industrial value to the Allies, although no considerable contingent of US
troops could be sent to Europe for many months. The first contingent of US troops landed in France 25
June 1917, although it was not until May 1918 that US troops arrived in any numbers under Maj-Gen
John Pershing. Meanwhile, the US navy embarked on a massive program of expansion and sent vessels to
aid in the protection of Atlantic shipping. A system of escorted convoys was introduced May 1917 and
losses due to German submarines immediately declined. Towards the end of Sept 1918 it was obvious
that the German offensive in the west had failed, while Bulgaria and Turkey were on the verge of defeat
and Austria sought peace at any price. The British maritime blockade had brought starvation to much of
Central Europe. A new German government was installed under a new chancellor, Prince Maximilian of
Baden, to negotiate with the Allies. Maximilian sent a note to US president Wilson 4 Oct, asking for an
armistice and declaring Germany's acceptance of his Fourteen Points as a basis for peace discussions.
Wilson emphasized that any armistice would have to safeguard Allied military supremacy, implying total
surrender, and negotiations began at the end of Oct. An armistice was signed between Germany and the
Allies at 5 a.m. 11 Nov 1918, and fighting ceased on the Western Front at 11 a.m. the same day. The
terms of peace were negotiated separately with each of the Central Powers in the course of the next few
years: a) Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany, signed 29 June 1919, ratified in Paris, 19
Jan 1920;
b) Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye between the Allies and Austria, signed 10 Sept 1919, ratified in Paris,
16 July 1920;
c) Treaty of Trianon between the Allies and Hungary signed 4 June 1920;
d) Treaty of Sèvres, between the Allies and Turkey, signed 10 Aug 1920, not ratified and superseded by
the Treaty of Lausanne between the Allies and Turkey, signed 24 July 1923, and ratified in the same year.
What were the causes responsible for the First World War?
14