Download The Roman Republic

OCTOBER 2012
10 SESTERTII
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
J U N 10A
IVN X A
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
INDEX DE SVBJECTI
Page
Content
3 | III
Vocabulary - VOCABVLARVM INDEX
4 | IV
Important People - SIGNIFICATIVAE HOMINES
5|V
The Roman Republic - RESPVBLICA ROMANA
6 | VI
System of the Republic- SYSTEMA DE RESPVBLICA
7 | VII
Advantages and Disadvantages - PRO ET CONTRA
8 | VIII
Fall of the Republic - EXITVM RESPVBLICI ROMANA
9 | IX
The Roman Empire - ROMANA IMPERIO
10 | X
Bibliography - BIBLIOGRAPHIA
IMPORTANT: IN LATIN, THE “J” AND “U” ARE
R EPRES E N T E D B Y “ I ” AND “ V ” R E S P E C T I V ELY.
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
VO C A B U L A RY
V O C A B U L A RV M I N D E X
Term
Definition
Aristocracy
The highest class in a certain society. They usually held political titles or offices.
Consul
One of two elected chief magistrate of Rome, both jointly ruling the republic.
Dictator
A Roman position of absolute power during a state of emergency.
Optimates
Supporters of the senate and the ruling aristocrats.
Patrician
The nobility of Rome.
Plebeian
The common people of Rome.
Populares
Supporters of using the people and the tribunes for political power.
Punic Wars
Wars between Rome and Carthage.
Republic
A type of government system where elected representative held all the power.
Roman Province
A territory outside the Italian region under the control of a Roman governor.
Rome
The capital city of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.
Senate
The state council of Rome, who decided how Rome should act towards its
neighbors.
S.P.Q.R.
(Senatus Populusque Romanus) The Senate and People of Rome.
The Twelve Tables A set of Roman laws detailing important rules, including marriage and business.
Triumvirate
A group of three powerful men (triumvir) controlling Rome
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
I M PO RTAN T P E OP L E
SIGNIFICATIVAE HOMINES
TA R Q V I N I V S S V P E R B V S
L A S T K I N G O F RO M E
5 3 4 - 5 1 0 BC
LV C I V S I V N I V S BRVTV S
FOUNDER OF THE REPUBLIC
6T H C E NT U RY BC
GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR
DIC TATO R FO R LI FE
1 0 0 - 4 4 BC
GNAEVS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (POMPEY)
T RI U M VI R /CO NS UL
1 0 6- 4 8 B C
MARK ANTONY
GENERAL/TRIUMVIR
83-30 BC
O C TAV I A N / AV G V S T V S
T RI U M VI R /E MP E ROR
63 BC - A D 14
MARCVS AEMILIVS LEPIDVS
TRIUMVIR
1 0 6 - 4 3 BC
GAIVS MARIVS
POPULARES CONSUL
1 57- 8 6 B C
MARCVS LICINIVS CRASSVS
R ICH ES T M A N I N RO ME
1 15- 5 3 B C
MARCVS IVNIVS BRVTVS
SE NATO R
85 -4 2 BC
PV B L I VS VA LERIV S P V BLICO LA
F I R S T RO M A N C O N S U L
D IED 5 09 BC
LVC I VS C OR NE LIVS SU LL A
O P T I M AT E S D I C TATO R
1 38- 7 8 BC
GAIVS CASSIVS LONGINVS
GENERAL
D IE D 42 BC
LVC IV S C ORN ELIV S C INNA
MARIAN PARTY LEADER/CONSUL
D IE D 84 BC
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
T H E RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S P VB L I CA R OMANA
WHAT IS THE REPUBLIC?
!
The Roman Republic was a period in the Roman civilization when it was
ruled as a republic. The republic traditionally began around 509 BC, when the
monarchy was overthrown, and ended in 27 BC when the empire was conceived. The
official name of the republic was “Roma”, before it changed in 100 BC to “S.P.Q.R.”.
This stands for “Senatus Populusque Romanus”, meaning “the Senate and People of
Rome. The government began with having two consuls and a senate to advise. It later
became more complex into a system of separation of powers and checks and
balances. To support the idea of one man not having too much power, the offices are
usually limited to one year, which in theory meant that no one could dominate the The Senate meeting
citizens. Though a democracy, the Roman society was hierarchical, and therefore have inside a curia, a building
conservative elements. This was because the government was initially ruled by the
which acts as a meeting
Patricians, the aristocrats who descended from the Ancient Roman Kingdom. Later house for the senate.
on, the Plebeians (commoners) were also allowed some offices in the republic.
T H E H I S TO RY O F T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E R E P U B L I C
In 509 BC, according to legend, a group of noblemen led by Lucius Junius Brutus overthrew king
Tarquinius Superbus. After that, the Roman constitution was drafted. The most important part was the chief
executive. Instead of senators electing a king, the citizens will elect two “consuls” for one year. Both consuls will
check each other and they can be prosecuted if they abused their power. However, the senate and assembly are
still powerless like before.
In 494 BC, Rome was at war. However, the plebeians, fed up with the
abuse of their rights, refused to fight and seceded away. The plebeians
returned when the patricians allowed them to elect their own officials.
These officials are the “tribunes”, who have two assistances called “aediles”.
Later on the censorship was created in 443 BC, and the praetorship and the
curule aedileship was created in 366 BC. Finally, the tribunes were given the
right to pass laws, as the only thing right they had before was to veto.
As the years go by, more power is given to the plebeians to satisfy
them. The senate began to realize the potential of using plebeian officials to Plebeians seceded from Rome in
494 BC. They returned after the
accomplish goals. They gave tribunes more power and the tribunes grew
patricians created the office of
closer to the senate. Unfortunately, though the plebeians are still
the Tribune of the Plebs.
economically poor, but the issue was not addressed. In 287, the plebeians
seceded again, so the Hortensian Law was passed. It allowed the Plebeian council to pass laws without the
consent of the patrician senators. Finally, the plebeians are politically equal. However, a new plebeian aristocracy
was formed, and it did not help the average plebeians.
Around 287-133 BC, the senate became the supreme power during this time because the Roman
Republic was very military active at this time, especially because of the Punic Wars. It was bad for the Plebeians,
who are forced to leave their farms unattended to go to war, then come back unable to work there. This led to
many bankrupt farmers and unemployed plebeians come to Rome and began to look for a populist leader.
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
SYSTEM OF THE REPUBLIC
SYSTEMA DE RESPVBLICA
H OW D I D T H E R E P U B L I C WO R K ?
The Roman Republic had three different branches:
• The first branch is the Senate. The Senate is controlled by patricians (nobles), who controls the money and
the way Rome should act towards its neighbors.
• The second branch is the Assembly. The Assembly is made up of representative elected by the plebeians
(commoners), who work to protect plebeian rights.
• The third branch is the Consuls. They are made up of two people elected by the assembly but works for
the senate. Consuls stay in office for a year, but they have to fight as generals and are also high judges. They
also have lots of power, being able to order arrests, create new laws and forbid actions of other consuls.
• These branches are meant to check each other so that no branch is more powerful than the other (similar
to the American Checks and Balances system).
Magistrates usually serve for only one term. This is supposed to prevent one person from having too much
power. Tablets called the Twelve Tables were posted outside the Forum. They were there to show that no one
can claim they don’t know the law. It was so important that for 900 years every schoolboy had to know it.
MAGISTRAL JOBS
Magistrate
# of
People
Description
Quaestor
2-40
Quaestors must be 31 years of age, both Patrician or Plebeian. They manage the finances of rome, including both
military and civil.
Tribune
10
They were a Plebeian-only office developed to counter-measure the Patricians. They represent the protections of
lives, property and rights of the Plebeians. They also had the power to veto elections, laws, senate decrees and
magistrate actions for the people.
Aedile
4
There are 2 Plebeian Aediles and 2 Curule Aediles. The Aediles responsibility was to manage religious festivals,
games, temples, city upkeep, marketplaces and grain supply. The Plebeian Aediles also assisted the Plebeian Tribunes.
Aediles must be at least 36 years of age.
Censor
2
These were people elected every 5 years (but only served 18 months) to conduct census, enroll new citizens and to
review the rolls of the senate. The were responsible for public morals and supervision of public contracts. They are
ranked below Praetors but above Aediles. They were also limited to ex-consuls, and a Patrician or Plebeian can hold
the position. As they only served 18 months, the Republic usually had no censor for a period of time.
Praetor
2-8
They are people elected every 2 years to manage the judicial law and to muster an army when the consuls are not
present. They are also able to administrate civil law and govern provinces, as well as handling consul’s duties when
they are not present. The first praetor governs Rome, second with Italy and additional praetors also governed other
provinces. They can hold the title of propraetor after an annual term and becoming provincial governers. Praetors
must be at least 39 years of age.
Consul
2
They are the chief civil and military magistrate elected through the assembly. Both Patricians and Plebeians can be
consuls. Consuls have to be 42 years old at minimum. They can be consul once every ten years, before taking the
title of proconsul and become provincial governors. A Suffect Consul is elected if a serving consul dies before the
end of his term.
Dictator
1
The dictator is only appointed during a state of emergency. They can be elected from the senate. Both Patricians and
Plebeians are eligible. The dictator had absolute power over everything and everyone, and could make any order.
Dictatorships often lasted less than 6 months (except for dictators like Caesar). Dictators can never be vetoed.
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
ADVA N TAGE S A N D D IS A DVAN TAG E S
P R O E T C ONT R A
Advantages
Disadvantages
People had the right to vote
Not everyone had the right to vote (i.e. women or slaves).
People can express their ideas at the Forum.
People could use power to silence others.
Both social classes are able to become politicians.
Socially the richer classes still oppressed the poorer classes.
The people were governed by the law instead of the person.
Some politicians changed laws for their own benefits.
People served for one year, so they can’t have too much power.
Former office holders must teach the new office holder about
their job, so serving for one year is not sufficient experience.
The Republic was ruled by two joint rulers (consuls), so they
share power.
Both consuls are still more powerful than the senate and the
assembly.
Any man can become a politician.
Some Romans are conservative in keeping the aristocrats
powerful, but the republic changed so much and the
conservative idea was falling apart.
Dictators only ruled for 6 months.
Not all dictators ruled for 6 months (Sulla and Caesar).
The republic could recruit plebeians to fight in the army for a
while.
The soldiers are not paid and plebeians returned to their
unworked farms, and eventually become bankrupted.
The Marian Reforms allowed professional soldiers wages and
are given some land after retirement.
The republic had to keeping conquering more territories to
give their soldiers more land to settle in.
The republic was able to expand and become a powerful state.
Because it ruled the whole Mediterranean, it became so large
that it was paving the way to become an empire.
Senate could assign armies to defend and attack.
The soldiers are not really loyal to the senate and more to
their generals (i.e. Caesar)
There were three branches of the republic that checked each
other to balance power.
Eventually one of the branches would become more powerful
than the others, such as the Senate during the Punic Wars.
WHY WAS THE REPUBLIC DOOMED TO BECOME AN EMPIRE?
The characteristics of an empire was that:
• It has a unified government system
• Constant military expansion
• Ruled over diverse subject people
By the Second Punic War the Romans was expanding towards Carthage and already conquered Spain.
Since the Spanish are not Roman and they are ruled by a unified government in Rome, it was probably already
an empire, long before Rome officially became an empire.
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
FALL OF THE REPUBLIC
EXITVM RESPVBLICI ROMANA
T H E G R AC C H I
!
Tiberius Gracchus was a tribune in 134 BC who proposed that the state-owned
land illegally taken by the rich to be distributed to the poor. However, he did not consult
the senate on this and instead went directly to an assembly. He also deposed another
tribune in the process and argued his reforms be funded by new provinces. In the end,
the land bill was passed. However, when Tiberius stood for the next election for another
year (breaking the rule of one year offices), he was murdered by senators. His brother,
Gaius, took his place, and made laws that benefited all except the senate. Gaius staged a !
Tiberius and
protest after he lost the election, where the senate used a more populist tribune. The Gaius Gracchus’
consul decided to crush the protest and Gaius committed suicide. In the end, the
personal ambition
Gracchi brothers found political opportunity for power, which would define the theme changed the republic.
of personal glory affecting the ideals of the republic.
It defined how an
individual can change a
nation.
MARIUS AND SULLA
!
Gaius Marius was a wealthy plebeian general who fought wars in Africa.
He was the first to allow the proletariat class to join the army, who were
formerly just landless citizens. These legionnaires will later be given land after
they retire (this is the reason why Rome had to keep expanding).This reform
won him the war in Africa, as well as a lot of support. During the war, he was the
only competent general Rome had, and he was elected to consul seven times. The
!
War between
other support he had was from the army, as his popularity was so great. The army
the Marian supporters became Marius’ power source. Normally the army would pledge allegiance to the
and Sulla’s supporters. state. However, as generals grew popular, the army were more loyal to generals.
!
Around this time, there was another man named Sulla. By now there were two political factions: the
Optimates and the Populares. The Optimates support the senate and aristocracy, while the Populares
supported the idea of getting support from tribunes and assemblies. The Optimates Sulla was against the
Populares Marius. At one point, Sulla marched on to Rome, expelled Marius, and began eliminating Marian
supporters. Marius, with the help of Populare Consul Cinna later marched on Rome while Sulla fought in the
east, and began killing anyone who was against him. Marius was elected consul for the last time until his quick
death. After Marius died and Sulla finished his campaigns, he came back to Rome again and finally took it. He
was declared dictator, abolished the tribunate and restored power to the Optimates while weakening the
Populares. One of the most controversial things he did was sparing Julius Caesar’s life. Caesar was not only a
Populare, but was Marius’ nephew and Cinna’s son-in-law. However, through the help of many relatives who
support Sulla, he was spared. According to Sulla’s memoirs, he regretted this decision, warning Caesar’s
supporters that he would be many times the equivalent of Marius; the course of history will prove Sulla right.
He ruled for 1-2 years, before stepping down and retiring.
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
T H E RO M A N E M P I R E
R O M AN A I MP E R I O
C AESAR AND THE TRIUMVIRATE
!
Julius Caesar was born a patrician. His family supported the Populares, which placed him in a dire state
when Sulla became dictator. He rose quickly through the political ladder, but was in debt. He befriends
Crassus, the richest man in Rome, to help with his money problem. Meanwhile, Pompey needed land grants for
his soldiers. Caesar managed to create a secret alliance with Crassus and Pompey: Both Crassus and Pompey
will help Caesar become Consul, and Caesar will help with their problems. This alliance worked for Caesar, and
was known as the First Triumvirate. Caesar married his daughter, Julia to Pompey to secure the alliance.
CIVIL WAR
!
Caesar began campaigning in Gaul (modern day France). His conquest there was very successful,
making Caesar wealthy and adding new lands for Rome. His army was not only the strongest, but was
fanatically loyal to Caesar. However, things began to change. Caesar’s daughter, Julia died in childbirth,
devastating Pompey. Without Julia, Pompey was further influenced by the Optimates. Worse, Crassus and his
army was annihilated in the east, leaving Caesar and Pompey in an unstable alliance. The Optimates wanted to
arrest Caesar because he was getting too much power. Caesar had to disband his army at the Rubicon River,
where he can be arrested. Knowing he would be arrested, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his army. The
Optimates and Pompey fled Rome to the east to get support. Caesar and Pompey were at war, ending with
Pompey’s defeat at Pharsalus. Pompey fled to Egypt and was assassinated, leaving Caesar uncontested.
FALL OF C AESAR
!
Caesar spared most of his political enemies and the senate gave
him many honors. He was elected consul for life, and later elected as
dictator for ten years. He passed man laws that benefited the people,
making the economy more secure. However, people were concerned that
he had too much control. He could take any magistral job. He could wear
anything. He had statues erected everywhere, and coins are minted in his
image (this never happened before). He had the power almost equivalent
to a king, which was against the ideals of the republic. Many senators
believe that he was destroying the republic, and decided that he must die. On March 15, 44 BC, Caesar was
assassinated in the forum. The assassins, led by Junius Brutus, announced that the republic is free. It is not.
R I S E O F O C TAV I A N
!
Caesar was popular among the middle and lower class because of his campaigns in Gaul. Rome was in
civil war. Mark Antony, Caesar’s friend, rallied the people against the assassins. However, Caesar’s heir was
Octavian, his nephew. Octavian and Antony were bitter rivals, but were later allies and created the Second
Triumvirate, along with Aemilius Lepidus. Over the next decade, they will engage in a civil war against the
Optimates. Finally, Brutus and his colleague, Cassius Longinus are defeated. However, the triumvirate turned on
each other. First, Lepidus tried to control Sicily but failed, and was ejected from the triumvirate. Then, Mark
Antony sided with Cleopatra of Egypt and was building his ambition. Octavian accused him of lust for power,
convinced the Senate to believe him, and went to war against Antony and Cleopatra. In the end, Octavian was
victorious. He ruled as Emperor Augustus along with Senate’s advice, supposedly keeping the Republic. He was
already the man with all the power, and the illusion of equality didn’t suppress it. The republic was over.
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHIA
Images Works Cited
001159_xlarge.jpg. Digital image. Eon Images. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eonimages.com/media/aa1a42c6-3d6d-11e0-923a-c95fd64d4e87-luciuscornelius-cinna>.
3904641_orig.jpg. Digital image. Shakespeare's Julius Caesar - MR. MARZO'S ENGLISH II (CP) WEB PORTAL. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2012. <http://
abcusdcerritoshsmarzo2.weebly.com/shakespeares-julius-caesar.html>.
3904641_orig.jpg. Digital image. Shakespeare's Julius Caesar - MR. MARZO'S ENGLISH II (CP) WEB PORTAL. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2012. <http://
abcusdcerritoshsmarzo2.weebly.com/shakespeares-julius-caesar.html>.
41Y3D00Z.jpg. Digital image. PaintingsOnCanvas.net. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://www.paintingsoncanvas.net/print-7531-1866660/valerius-publicola-dissipatesuspicion-his-ambitions-destroys-his-splendid-house-giclee-print/>.
Brutus_cm.JPG. Digital image. Lucius Brutus. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://www.livius.org/bn-bz/brutus/brutus01.html>.
Crassus.jpg. Digital image. Marcus Licinius Crassus. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://antiquitatis.com/rome/biographies/bio_crassus.html>.
DeadRise. Spqr. Digital image. Assassin's Creed Wikia. N.p., 19 Nov. 2010. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://assassinscreed.wikia.com/wiki/File:Spqr.gif>.
Elephant Tower.jpg. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 9 Dec. 2007. Web. 11 Oct. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elephant_tower.jpg>.
Gaius_Cassius_Longinus.jpg. Digital image. Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://hoocher.com/Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_Octavianus/
Gaius_Iulius_Caesar_Octavianus.htm>.
Julius-Caesar-bust.jpg. Digital image. Romans in Britain. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://www.romanobritain.org/3_bio/bio_caesar.htm#.UHIzi79LreY>.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.jpg. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 17 Oct. 2007. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus.jpg>.
Markantony.jpg. Digital image. Mark Antony - Conservapedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://conservapedia.com/Mark_Antony>.
Octavian3.jpg. Digital image. Michelle Moran - Cleopatra's Daughter. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://www.michellemoran.com/books/cleopatra/selenesworld/
octavian.html>.
Pompey.jpg. Digital image. Pompey the Great. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://pompeythegreat.blogspot.com/>.
Portrait Brutus Massimo.jpg. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Sept. 2006. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Portrait_Brutus_Massimo.jpg>.
Republic10.jpg. Digital image. The Romans. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2012. <http://www.the-romans.co.uk/gallery2/full/republic10.jpg>.
Rouille, Guillaume. Tarquinius-Superbus.jpg. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 1553. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus>.
Secessio Plebis.JPG. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Oct. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Secessio_plebis.JPG>.
Senate_meeting.jpg. Digital image. Roman Republic: Institutions. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Oct. 2012. <http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Senate_meeting.jpg>.
THE
RO M A N R E P U B L I C
R E S PV B LICA R O MANA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHIA
Images Works Cited
So-called “Marius”, free copy (probably augustean time) after a portrait of an important Roman from 2nd century BC. Because of many common details with the socalled « Sulla » (proportions, open mouth, large eyes), it is advanced that both statues (brothers, adversaries?) were concieved and exhibited together.
Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Feb. 2011. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg>.
Sylla.jpg. Digital image. Ystari Games. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2012. <http://www.ystari.com/wpe/?p=192>.
Zpage360.gif. Digital image. Heritage History: Sulla. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2012. <http://www.heritage-history.com/www/heritage.php?
Dir=characters&FileName=sulla.php>.
Research Work Cited
"Antiquitatis." Biographies: The Late Republic. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2012. <http://antiquitatis.com/rome/biographies/bios_late_republic.html>.
BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2012. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/fallofromanrepublic_article_01.shtml>.
Bonta, Steve. "The Republic matures: the Roman Republic was not built in a day, but was the product of generations of reform and even some serious reverses." The
New American 18 Oct. 2004: 35+. Student Edition. Web. 9 Oct. 2012.
Cavazzi, F. "The Early Republic." The Early Republic. N.p., 12 Apr. 2012. Web. 01 Oct. 2012. <http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/earlyrep-index.html>.
Langley, Andrew. "Empire or Republic?" The Roman News:The Greatest Newspaper in Civilization. Cambridge: Candlewick, 1996. N. pag. Print.
"The Demise of the Roman Republic (50 BC - 30 BC)." The Demise of the Roman Republic. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.explorethemed.com/
DemiseRep.asp?c=1>.
Gills, N.S. "Optimates." About.com Ancient / Classical History. About.com, n.d. Web. 01 Oct. 2012. <http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/juliuscaesarterms/g/
optimates.htm>.
"The Roman Empire. Or Republic. Or...Which Was It?: Crash Course World History #10." YouTube.YouTube, 29 Mar. 2012. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. <http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=oPf27gAup9U>.
"Roman Magistrates." Executive Branch or Curule Magistrates. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Sept. 2012. <http://www.unrv.com/empire/executive-branch.php>.
"Roman Republic." BrainPOP. BrainPOP, n.d. Web. 24 Sept. 2012. <http://www.brainpop.com/socialstudies/worldhistory/romanrepublic/>.
"Roman Republic." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 27 Sept. 2012. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic>.