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Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Meat Science j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / m e a t s c i Review Healthier meat products as functional foods Eric A. Decker ⁎, Yeonhwa Park Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, United States a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 25 January 2010 Received in revised form 26 March 2010 Accepted 15 April 2010 Keywords: Functional foods Fatty acids Omega-3 fatty acids Conjugated linoleic acid Bioactive peptides Antioxidants Dietary fiber a b s t r a c t A promising approach to improving health care would be to produce a healthier food supply as a preventive health care strategy. The food supply could be improved by producing functional foods that have nutritional profiles that are healthier than conventional products. However, production of functional foods is not always easily accomplished since they must also taste good, be convenient and reasonably priced so that consumers will regularly purchase and use the products. Meats have great potential for delivering important nutrients such as fatty acids, minerals, dietary fiber, antioxidants and bioactive peptides into the diet. However, to produce successful products with these ingredients, technologies must be developed to increase their stability and decrease their flavor impact on muscle foods. In addition, many regulatory hurdles must be overcome for the commercial production of meats with added nutrients. These include redefinition of standard of identities and policies that allow front of the package nutritional claims. Without these regulatory changes, production of healthier meat products won't become a reality since these products would not have a competitive advantage over unfortified meats. © 2010 The American Meat Science Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unsaturated fatty acids . . . . . . . . . . Dietary fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Antioxidant vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . Other potential functional food compounds 6.1. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) . . . 6.2. Bioactive peptides . . . . . . . . . 7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Introduction Each year, in the U.S. alone, medical costs for major chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis and obesity exceed $400 billion (DHHS, 2010). Many of these disorders are known to be directly linked to the human diet. This means that many challenges in health care could be proactively improved by producing a healthier food supply as a preventive health care strategy. However, this is not easily accomplished since improving the food supply must be done without dramatically ⁎ Corresponding author. Department of Food Science, Chenoweth Laboratory, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, United States. Tel.: +1 413 545 1026; fax: +1 413 545 1262. E-mail address: [email protected] (E.A. Decker). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 50 51 51 51 52 52 52 53 54 altering consumer needs such as food quality, convenience and costs. One way to look at the challenge of improving the food supply is to realize that the success of food-based health care intervention is dependent on both efficacy and compliance. Efficacy relates to the ability of the food-based intervention to alter the biological pathways that improve health, whereas compliance relates to the propensity for an individual to actually consume the health promoting product. No matter how efficacious an intervention is, it will not be effective if compliance is poor. This is especially true for functional foods as they must be efficacious while also tasting good, being convenient and reasonably priced so that consumers will regularly purchase the products. Meat and poultry products are a food category with both positive and negative nutritional attributes. Muscle foods are major sources for many bioactive compounds including iron, zinc, conjugated linoleic 0309-1740/$ – see front matter © 2010 The American Meat Science Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.04.021 50 E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55 Table 1 Factors to consider when choosing a functional food ingredient for a specific food. Is the bioactive compound under consumed by general population? Is the bioactive compound under consumed by a target population? What is the evidence for efficacy in humans? Is the form of the bioactive compound being used bioavailable? What is the stability of the bioactive compound in the food of interest? ○ Oxidative stability ○ Light stability ○ Stability to inherent food enzymes ○ pH sensitivity ○ Heat stability How does the bioactive compounds impact food quality? ○ Flavor ○ Texture ○ Color Is an economically generally recognized as safe (GRAS) source of the bioactive compound commercially available? Are there any regulatory restrictions to added the bioactive compounds to the food of interest? ○ Standard of identify Can health or nutrient content claims be made about the bioactive compound so that the health benefits of the product can be communicated to the consumer? acid (mainly ruminants) and B vitamins (Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2001). However, meats and processed meats are also associated with nutrients and nutritional profiles that are often considered negative including high levels of saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, sodium and high fat and caloric contents (Whitney & Rolfes, 2002). Some of these negative nutrients in meats can be minimized by selection of lean meat cuts, removal of adipose fat, dietary manipulation to alter fatty acid composition and proper portion control to decrease fat consumption and caloric intake. In addition, the nutritional profile of meat products could be further improved by addition of potentially health promoting nutrients. These products would be categorized as functional foods which are defined as foods with nutritional profiles that exceed conventional products. In deciding proper nutrients for functional foods, several factors should be considered including the bioactive compound's current intake level in the diet (e.g. would the consumer benefit from an increase in the bioactive compound in the diet), biological efficacy in humans, stability in the food product and impact on quality parameters such as color, flavor and texture (Table 1). The major nutrients currently under consumed by adults in the U.S. include calcium, potassium, magnesium, fiber as well as vitamins A, C and E (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). In addition, omega-3 fatty acids are currently under consumed according to recommended intake levels set by associations such as the American Heart Association (for review see Harris, 2007). Finally, several newly recognized health promoting bioactive compounds have potential as functional food components such as conjugated linoleic acid and bioactive peptides. Table 2 shows some examples of bioactive compounds being considered for addition to functional foods. 2. Unsaturated fatty acids In many countries, consumers are over consuming saturated fatty acids and under consuming polyunsaturated fatty acids especially the omega-3 fatty acids (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). Fatty acid intake is a major problem because of the ability of fatty acids to impact low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels which are associated with cardiovascular disease. In general, saturated fatty acids increased LDL cholesterol levels in the plasma and thus increase cardiovascular disease risk while polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease LDL cholesterol levels (Whitney & Rolfes, 2002). There is also much interest in incorporating omega-3 fatty acids into function foods. This is because many consumers are currently under consuming omega-3 fatty acids so increased consumption could be beneficial by decreasing blood triacylglycerols, sudden cardiac death, depression and arthritis (Harris, 2007). The fatty acid composition of meat from ruminants is generally more saturated due to the fact that unsaturated fatty acids are subjected to biohydrogenation in the rumen (Fig. 1). The lack of a rumen means that the fatty acid composition of muscle foods from animals such as pigs, poultry and fish can be altered by diet as many papers have been published on increasing the unsaturated fatty acids composition of pigs and poultry (for review see Bou et al., 2009). This practice already occurs in specialty products such as Iberian hams which are high in oleic acid due to consumption of acorns (NarvaezRivas et al., 2008) and aquaculture salmon which are fed fish oils high in omega-3 fatty acids (Blanchet et al., 2005). However, these practices are limited by the fact that increasing levels of unsaturated fatty acids decreases the oxidative stability of the meat product. In contrast, increasing unsaturated fatty acids by dietary manipulation has been very successful in eggs. This is because eggs are naturally very antioxidative with the lipids packaged in oxidative stable lipoproteins, the iron inactivated by binding to proteins such as phosvitin and maintenance of low oxygen environment (Bou et al., 2009). Increasing unsaturated fatty acids is especially a problem in muscle foods since they are high in prooxidative metals, generally low in endogenous antioxidants and subjected to processing operations that greatly increase oxidative stress (e.g. cooking to produce warmed-over flavor). Thus, alteration of dietary fatty acids to change muscle composition is most easily accomplished with oleic acid since it is at least 10 times more oxidatively stable than polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linolenic (McClements & Decker, 2008). However, if dietary manipulation is performed to increase polyunsaturated fatty acids, then antioxidant technologies must also be employed to Table 2 Examples of bioactive compounds being considered as functional food ingredients in meats. Essential vitamins and minerals Nonessential nutrients Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin E Iron Potassium Magnesium Calcium Long chain omega-3 fatty acids Dietary fiber Conjugated linoleic acid Bioactive peptides Probiotic bacteria Antioxidants Prebiotics Fig. 1. Biohydrogenation of linolenic acid by rumen bacteria enzymes and endogenous synthesis of conjugated linolenic acid. E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55 minimize oxidative deterioration. Inhibition of oxidative deterioration could be accomplished by increasing muscle antioxidants by diet or food ingredients, decreasing storage temperature and/or oxygen exclusion by vacuum packaging. As mentioned earlier, the fatty acid composition of ruminants is difficult to change because unsaturated fatty acids are biohydrogenated in the rumen. Attempts have been made to use protected dietary fats that are unavailable to ruminant bacterial enzymes but are then released in the small intestine where they are absorbed and incorporated into muscle or milk. Protected lipids have been largely unsuccessful due to their higher cost especially in relation to the low level of fatty acid change they produce in tissue. There are also many references of improved fatty acid compositions in grass fed beef. These references relate to the increased levels of omega-3 fatty acids (especially α-linolenic acid) in beef on pasture. However, the nutritional importance of increased α-linolenic acid concentration is not clear since α-linolenic acid is not as bioactive as longer chain omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA (Harris, 2007) and since the total increase in omega-3 fatty acids in an 85 g portion of grass feed beef is generally less than 50 mg (Scollan et al., 2006) which is less than 10% of current recommendation of 500 mg omega-3 fatty acids per day (Harris, 2007). Another approach to altering the fatty acid composition is direct addition of oils to processed meat products. This approach is most promising for omega-3 fatty acids which only need to be added at low levels (50–100 mg, approximately 150–300 mg fish oil) to be nutritionally significant. An advantage of this approach is that the omega-3 fatty acids can be encapsulated in delivery systems that inhibit oxidation without decreasing bioavailability. Lee and coworkers (Lee, Faustman, et al., 2006; Lee, Hernandez, et al., 2006) found that a combination of protein encapsulation of a high DHA algal oil and an antioxidant cocktail of citric acid, erythorbate and rosemary extract was able to control lipid oxidation and not alter sensory properties of ground turkey and pork sausage. However, a potential disadvantage of exogenous addition of omega-3 fatty acids into processed meats is that a portion of the bioactive lipids (up to 30%) can be lost during cooking (Lee et al., 2006). 51 populations, iron is also under consumed but its addition to meat is problematic as it will rapidly promote lipid oxidation and discoloration (McClements & Decker, 2008). Fortification of processed meats with calcium, potassium and magnesium can be accomplished without major changes in sensory profile (Moon et al., 2008; Schoene et al., 2009; Selgas, Salazar, & Garcia 2009). An additional advantage of calcium, potassium and magnesium fortification is that these minerals can be used to reduce sodium levels in processed meats thus further improving the nutritional profile of the product (Moon et al., 2008). Salt such as potassium lactate can also be advantageous since it inhibits lipid oxidation and microbial growth (Moon et al., 2008). Calcium can activate the protease, calpain, which increases meat tenderness. Research has shown that calcium infusion into beef cattle can both increase muscle calcium concentrations (Dikeman et al., 2003) and improve beef tenderness after 14 days of aging (Diles et al., 1994). However, in some processed meats, calcium, potassium and magnesium inhibit proteolytic enzymes important in the flavor development of dry-cured meats (Armenteros et al., 2009) although they do not negatively impact salty flavor (Armenteros et al., 2009). There has also been considerable interest in the dietary supplementation of livestock with selenium. Muscle selenium concentrations can be increased by dietary selenium supplementation in beef (Juniper et al., 2008), pork (Morel et al., 2008) and chicken (Pan et al., 2007) suggesting that supplemented livestock could be beneficial for human health. Increases in muscle selenium concentrations correlate with increases in the activity of glutathione peroxidiase, a seleniumcontaining enzyme that decomposes lipid hydroperoxides. However, increases in the activity of glutathione peroxidase in beef did not increase the oxidative stability of the muscle (Juniper et al., 2008). Increases in dietary selenium for humans has been of interest because of epidemiological evidence that selenium decreases prostate cancer risk and beneficial for thyroid function (Lippman & Watkins, 2004; Combs et al., 2009). However, a recent clinical trial with over 35,000 men (SELECT Trial) concluded that dietary selenium does not prevent prostate cancer in health men in the U.S., Canada and Puerto Rico (Lippman & Watkins, 2004). In addition, examination of 28 men from the SELECT Trial found that dietary selenium produced no changes in thyroid hormone concentrations. 3. Dietary fiber 5. Antioxidant vitamins Dietary fiber can be classified as soluble and insoluble fiber. Both types of fiber have numerous health benefits including maintaining bowel integrity and health, lowering blood cholesterol levels, controlling blood sugar levels and providing a non-caloric bulking agent that can aid in weight loss by replacing caloric food components such as fat. According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (2005), dietary fibers are under consumed by most adults indicating that fiber fortification in meat products could have health benefits. Numerous papers have shown that fiber fortification into sausages at nutritionally significant levels (2–3 g/serving) can be accomplished without adverse impact on sensory quality (Besbes et al., 2008; Choi et al., 2008; Salazar et al., 2009; Yilmaz & Gecgel, 2009). In addition to the benefit of increased fiber consumption, dietary fibers in meat products also have other advantages such as fat replacement, increased water-holding capacity and improved oxidative stability when the fiber source is associated with phenolic antioxidants (Choi et al., 2008; Sayago-Ayerdi et al., 2009). 4. Minerals Dietary mineral are essential for bone health, hypertension, muscle and nerve function, regulation of blood sugar levels and thus are important in diseases such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and diabetes (Whitney & Rolfes, 2002). Calcium, potassium and magnesium are the most commonly under consumed minerals in the diet (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). In some Dietary antioxidants have been suggested to be beneficial to immune function, heart disease and cancer. Vitamins A, C and E are consumed at levels below their recommended dietary intake levels by many consumers (Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005). Addition of vitamin C to meats is difficult because it is not very stable at meat pH and it tends to promote lipid oxidation (Decker & Hultin, 1992; Haak et al., 2009). In addition, vitamin C addition to meats is often prohibited since it can stabilize meat color and thus is considered adulteration. β-carotene is an important source of dietary Vitamin A. In general, meats are not a good source of β-carotene or other carotenoids with the exception of chicken. β-carotene concentrations can be increased by dietary supplementation (for review see Bou et al., 2009). Addition of β-carotene to meats as a food ingredient is often difficult due to its chemical instability. Both exogenous addition and dietary fortification of β-carotene is also limited since it will alter the color of the muscle (Torrissen, 2000). Meats are an important dietary source of vitamin E with poultry and ground beef being the second and sixth most important sources of α-tocopherol in men while poultry is the third most important source in women (Ma et al., 2000). Muscle foods could be even better sources of vitamin E through meat fortification or dietary supplementation with α-tocopheryl acetate. Vitamin E fortification in foods is most effective when α-tocopheryl acetate is used as the ingredient. This is because the addition of the acetate group onto the tocopherol protects the molecule from oxidation (McClements & Decker, 2008). Mixed 52 E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55 tocopherols are also sometimes added to meats to inhibit lipid oxidation (Mitsumoto, 2000). Whether these would significantly contribute to the nutritional profile is unknown since they would be oxidatively degraded during storage and since they have significantly less vitamin E activity than α-tocopherol (Mustacich et al., 2007). The vitamin E content of muscle foods can also be increased by dietary fortification (for review see Schaefer et al., 1995). Incorporation of α-tocopherol via the diet allows the biological system to efficiently incorporate α-tocopherol into the cell membranes (the other tocopherol homologs are not efficiently incorporated into biological membranes when incorporated into the diet). Cell membranes with high levels of tocopherol are significantly more resistant to lipid oxidation since membrane phospholipids are the primary site of oxidation. Thus, α-tocopherol has a major benefit to protecting meat flavor. In addition, lipid oxidation in beef muscle causes myoglobin discoloration so α-tocopherol supplementation also protects meat color. Overall, α-tocopheryl acetate supplementation of livestock could have major benefits to both meat quality and nutritional composition (for review see Schaefer et al., 1995; Jensen et al., 1998). epidermis, prostate, colon, liver, kidney, and lung (Lee et al., 2005; Bhattacharya et al., 2006; Kelley et al., 2007; Park, 2009). There are limited studies about the effects of naturally occurring CLA on human cancer incidence. Knekt et al. (1996) reported an inverse relationship between milk intake and incidence of breast cancer which might be associated with CLA content in milk. This observation is consistent with Aro et al. (2000) in postmenopausal women. However, others reported weak or no association between milk and daily consumption and CLA levels and breast cancer in humans (Chajes et al., 2002; Voorrips et al., 2002; Chajes et al., 2003; Rissanen et al., 2003; McCann et al., 2004; Moorman & Terry, 2004; Larsson et al., 2009), and Talamini et al. (1984) reported increased breast cancer risk with more frequent consumption of milk and dairy products. There is an additional publication reporting that CLA showed an inverse association with colorectal cancer incidence in women (Larsson et al., 2005). Overall, it is not conclusive if naturally occurring CLA has a significant health impact on prevention of cancer. Thus, further studies are needed to confirm the implications of CLA on human cancer prevention. 6.2. Bioactive peptides 6. Other potential functional food compounds in muscle foods 6.1. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) One fatty acid that has drawn significant attention for its potential health benefits in the last two decades is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). CLA is naturally found in milk and dairy products (Chin et al., 1992) and was originally identified as an anti-cancer component from ground beef extract (Pariza & Hargraves, 1985; Ha et al., 1987). Although there are a number of CLA isomers, the primary natural isomer of CLA in food is the cis-9,trans-11 isomer (Chin et al., 1992; Kramer et al., 1998). The cis-9,trans-11 CLA isomer in food can originate by one of two pathways (Fig. 1); from the incomplete biohydrogenation of linoleic acid to stearic acid by rumen bacteria or from the delta-9 desaturation of trans-11 vaccenic acid (a primary intermediate for ruminant biohydrogenation) in mammalian tissues (Corl et al., 2003; Kay et al., 2004). This isomer consists of up to 80– 85% of total CLA in food (Chin et al., 1992). The average dietary intake of CLA from natural sources (mainly the cis-9,trans-11 isomer) is estimated as 151 mg/d for American women, 212 mg/d for American men, and 97.5 mg/day for English people (Ritzenthaler et al., 2001; Mushtaq et al., 2009). Typical CLA concentrations in beef range from 6 to 9 mg/g fat. Since CLA is found in adipose fat, CLA concentrations are highly influenced by fat concentrations. Dietary CLA from beef can be increased by manipulation of animal diets and direct CLA addition to meats. CLA concentrations in beef can be influenced by diets containing oils or oilseeds high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (usually linoleic or linolenic). These dietary practices can increase CLA concentrations up to 3 fold (Enser et al., 1999; Madron et al., 2002). Muscle CLA concentrations can also be increased by the direct inclusion of CLA into animal feeds which has the added benefit of decreasing muscle adipose fat concentrations (Dugan et al., 1997). Since CLA is also available as a food additive, it can be directly added to foods. Most current CLA research using synthetically prepared CLA (consisting mainly of two isomers, cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis12) has shown a number of biological benefits, such as prevention of cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, diabetes, and osteoporosis (Park & Pariza, 2007). Not all of these activities have been positively associated with the naturally occurring cis-9,trans-11 CLA. For example, CLA is associated with decreased body weight. However, this bioactivity is primarily associated with the trans-10, cis-12 CLA isomer (Park et al., 1999; Park & Pariza, 2007). The most significant bioactivity of the cis-9,trans-11 CLA isomer is its anti-cancer property, as shown in a number of animal cancer models such as breast, Hypertension is the long term elevation of blood pressure. Long term hypertension results in increased risk of stroke, heart attack, arterial aneurysm and kidney failure. One in three Americans has been estimated to have high blood pressure but this estimate might be low since hypertension has no symptoms and thus many people are unaware of their condition. From 1995 to 2005, the death rate from hypertension increased 25.2% (Thom et al., 2006). In 2004, high blood pressure was listed as a contributing cause of death for over 300,000 Americans (Thom et al., 2006; National Heart, Lung & Blood Institute, 2009). Even moderate hypertension can shorten life span. For example, increases of systolic pressure of 20 mm Hg or diastolic pressure of 10 mm Hg can double the risk of cardiovascular disease. Subjects with blood pressure of 120/80 mm Hg have approximately half the lifetime risk of stroke of subjects with hypertension. Hypertension is common to 69 and 77% of people who have their first heart attack or stroke, respectively. Overall, total life expectancy was 5 years longer for normotensive individuals compared to individuals with hypertension (Thom et al., 2006; National Heart, Lung & Blood Institute, 2009). The estimated direct and indirect cost of hypertension for 2009 is $73.4 billion (Thom et al., 2006; National Heart, Lung & Blood Institute, 2009). One of the biochemical pathways that impacts blood pressure is the renin–angiotensin system (RAS). RAS is a hormone based pathway that responds to low blood pressure by initiating the kidneys to secrete the enzyme renin. Renin (also referred to as angiotensinogenase) circulates in the blood where it hydrolyzes angiotensinogen into angiotensin I (a 10 amino acid peptide). Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II (8 amino acids ) by angiotensin Iconverting enzyme (ACE, a dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase) which is associated with endothelial cells on blood vessel walls especially in the lungs. Production of angiotensin II in blood vessels induces the constriction of arteries and a subsequent increase in blood pressure (Rude, 2000). An effective treatment of hypertension can be accomplished with angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. These inhibitors work by competitively binding to angiotensin I-converting enzyme thus blocking its ability to convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Pharmaceutical based ACE inhibitors such as Lisinopril are often peptide mimetics that contain amino acid derivatives such as lysine. Lisinopril has been shown to be effective at decreasing the risk of myocardial infarction mortality by 11% (Goa et al., 1996). ACE inhibitors can be even more effective in high risk populations such as those with pulmonary disease decreasing myocardial infarction mortality by 23% (Mancini et al., 2006). The ACE inhibitor Perindopril E.A. Decker, Y. Park / Meat Science 86 (2010) 49–55 which can decrease systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 9 and 4 mm Hg, respectively, decreases the risk of stroke 28% (PROGRESS Collaborative Group, 2001). Food-based strategies to control high blood pressure would be an excellent intervention to improve health and wellness and decrease health care costs. Naturally occurring peptides with ACE inhibitory activity have been identified from the proteolytic degradation products of food proteins. Proteins that can produce ACE inhibitory peptides can be of animal (e.g. dairy, fish, meat and eggs), plant (e.g. soy, rice and garlic) or microbial (e.g. yeast) origin (see FitzGerald & Meisel, 2000; Hong et al., 2008 for reviews) Bioactive peptides have been identified from the hydrolysis of skeletal muscle proteins including myosin, tropomyosin, troponin, actin and collogen (for an extensive review see Vercruysse et al., 2005). The ACE inhibitory activity of peptides from sources such as dairy proteins has been the most extensively studied. For example, the casein polypeptides (e.g. αs1, αs2 and β) can be hydrolyzed into over 65 different peptides with ACE inhibitory activity. The ACE inhibitory activity of these peptides varies extensively with half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) ranging from 2 to N1000 μM when measured with in vitro tests. The peptides also vary greatly in size ranging from 2 to over 80 amino acids (Hong et al., 2008). A large number of studies have shown that peptides originating from food proteins have ACE inhibitory activity in vitro and can decrease blood pressure in laboratory animal studies (see FitzGerald & Meisel, 2000; Hong et al., 2008 for reviews). However, evidence also exists for the ability of these peptides to decrease blood pressure in human populations. Epidemiological studies show that individuals with low milk consumption have a higher incidence of hypertension (McCarron et al., 1984). The association of milk consumption and hypertension was also reported for men in Puerto Rico with men who drank no milk having twice the incidence of hypertension as men who drank a liter or more of milk per day (Garcia-Palmieri et al., 1984). Several epidemiological studies have also shown a link between protein consumption and hypertension. Both the Honolulu Heart Program (Reed et al., 1985) and the Intersalt (Stamler et al., 1996) studies concluded that blood pressure was lower in populations that had high protein intake. More direct evidence of the ability of ACE inhibitory peptides to reduce blood pressure in humans has been reported in several clinical trials. Consumption of a fermented milk (Seppo et al., 2003) high in bioactive peptides can decrease systolic blood pressure 6.7 ± 3.0 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure 3.6 ± 1.9 mm Hg in human patients with high blood pressure while fermented milk tablets containing bioactive peptides decreased systolic blood pressure 11.2 ± 3.0 mm Hg but did not significantly decrease diastolic blood pressure (Aihara et al., 2005). In a study with the sardine dipeptide, valyl-tyrosine, systolic and diastolic blood pressures were found to decrease 7.4–9.7 and 4.5–5.2 mm Hg, respectively, in human patients (Kawasaki et al., 2000). While these studies show that peptide originating from food proteins have promise in decreasing blood pressure, other studies have not been so promising showing that lactopeptides (van der Zander et al., 2008) and milk supplemented with whey peptides (Lee et al., 2007) did not decrease blood pressure in human populations. As mentioned earlier, the effectiveness of a food-based health care intervention is dependent on both efficacy and compliance. The inability of ACE inhibitory peptides to decrease blood pressure in some human studies could be due to the loss of their efficacy in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Most clinical studies on ACE inhibitory peptides have utilized peptides derived from the hydrolysis of proteins by microbial proteases. These peptides are susceptible to further proteolytic hydrolysis in the stomach and intestine from acids or from enzymes including pepsin, chymotrypsin and various peptidases (FitzGerald & Meisel, 2000). In addition, naturally occurring microbes in the GI tract produce additional proteases and peptidases that will catalyze further peptide hydrolysis. As with all 53 proteinaceous material, the combination of proteases and peptidases in the GI tract could result in hydrolysis of ACE inhibitory peptides resulting in loss of their efficacy. If ACE inhibitory peptides are to be included in functional foods they must not only be efficacious but they must also not negatively impact the quality of foods so that consumers will regularly purchase these products thus insuring high levels of compliance. This can also be a challenge for ACE inhibitory peptides since these peptides can be bitter (Cho et al., 2004). In fact, increasing ACE inhibitory activity of peptides is strongly correlated with increasing bitterness meaning that the most efficacious peptides would produce strong bitter offflavors in functional foods thus negatively impacting compliance. ACE inhibitory peptides from foods could be introduced into the diet in two ways. The first method would be to add proteins to the food which would then produce ACE inhibitory peptides upon hydrolysis by naturally occurring peptides in the GI tract. This method could be difficult since high levels of proteins would need to be included in the diet to reach a sufficient dose that could reduce blood pressure. An alternative method to introduce ACE inhibitory peptides into the diet would be to utilize enzyme technologies to hydrolyze food grade proteins and then concentrate the resulting peptide fractions that are high in ACE inhibitory peptides. These fractions could then be used as nutraceutical ingredients that could be incorporated into functional foods at relatively low levels. Since addition of large amounts of proteins as a source of ACE inhibitory peptides is problematic, it seems more likely that preformed bioactive peptides would be the ingredient of choice for addition to functional foods. However, addition of ACE inhibitory peptides into functional foods must be done without altering the quality of the food while maintaining the peptides in their bioactive forms. One potential mechanism to accomplish both of these goals would be to encapsulate the peptides in lipid carrier systems such as liposomes or water-inoil-in-water emulsions. The flavor and efficacy of the peptides is dependent on their interactions with taste buds and naturally occurring proteases and acids in the stomach and intestine. Encapsulation of the ACE inhibitory peptides into a lipophilic matrix would inhibit these interactions and upon entering the intestine, the lipids would then be digested and the peptides would be released so they could be absorbed into the blood where they could reduce blood pressure. 7. Conclusions Meat systems have great potential for delivering important nutrients into the diet. The nutritional composition of meat products can be altered by direct addition of bioactive food ingredients or by the inclusion of bioactive compounds into animal diets. The latter technique has the advantage that the bioactive compounds would be biologically introduced into the food and thus would not have to be declared as a food additive. This is important since food additives are often not allowed in meats products since they could violate the products standard of identity. An additional challenge for the nutritional fortification of meat products is the issues of front of the package nutritional claims. Many countries, including the U.S., are currently not allowing nutrient label claims especially for nutrients added to or endogenous in meat products. These policy are a major deterrent to production of healthier meat products since the producers of such products cannot communicate the health benefits of their products to the consumer and thus do not have a competitive advantage over unfortified meats. An additional barrier to the successful marketing of meat products as functional foods is the added expense of the production of these products. 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