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Ch 3 Early Empires in the Ancient Near East
Lesson 1 Akkad and Babylon
IT MATTERS BECAUSE
New conflicts arose as the number of Sumerian city-states grew, and the citystates expanded. City-states
fought one another for control of land and water. The Sumerian city-states were located on flat land,
which left them open to invasion from the armies of other groups.
Akkadian Empire
GUIDING QUESTION What were the contributions of Sargon and the Akkadians?
The Semitic-speaking Akkadians (uh•KAY•dee•uhnz) lived to the north of the
Sumerian city-states. Around 2340 B.C., the Akkadians, under the leadership of Sargon,
took over the Sumerian city-states and set up the first empire in world history. An empire is
a large political unit or state, usually under a single leader, which controls many peoples or
territories. Empires are often easier to create than they are to maintain. The rise and fall of
empires is an important part of history.
In his new empire, Sargon kept the former rulers of the conquered city-states as his
governors. His power was based on the military, and his army included 5,400 men. Sargon’s
empire included all of Mesopotamia as well as lands westward to the Mediterranean. Sargon
was later remembered in chronicles in ancient Mesopotamia. He was described as the most
powerful king who brought wealth and magnificence to all the lands he conquered.
Sargon’s grandson Naram-Sin was one of his successors. Naram-Sin ruled from 2260
to 2223 B.C. He continued the greatness of the Akkadian empire. Like his grandfather,
Naram-Sin led many military campaigns. His successes led him to boast that he was king of
the universe and to declare himself a god. The Akkadian empire, however, did not last. The
Akkadian empire fell by 2150 B.C. as a result of neighboring peoples’ attacks.
PROGRESS CHECK
Explaining How did Sargon establish and rule his empire?
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Babylonian Empire
GUIDING QUESTION What was the significance of Hammurabi’s codification of laws?
The end of the Akkadian empire allowed independent city-states to return in
Mesopotamia. After a long period of warfare among the city-states, a new empire arose.
Hammurabi’s Rule
Hammurabi (ha•muh•RAH•bee) was a king from Babylon, a city-state south of
Akkad. He came to power in 1792 B.C. Hammurabi had a well-disciplined army of foot
soldiers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronze daggers (short, pointed knives). He
learned to divide his opponents and subdue them one by one. Using such methods, he
gained control of Sumer and Akkad. As a result, a new Mesopotamian kingdom was created.
After his conquests, Hammurabi called himself “the sun of Babylon.” He said he was the
king who had made the world obedient. He established his capital at Babylon. After his
death in 1750 B.C., a series of weak kings followed him. They were unable to keep the
empire united. It finally fell to new invaders.
The Code of Hammurabi
Laws had regulated people’s relationships with one another for centuries in
Mesopotamia. Hammurabi’s collection of laws provides great insight into social conditions
there. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system of strict justice. Penalties for crimes
were severe, and they varied according to the social class of the victim. A crime against a
noble by a commoner was punished more severely than the same offense (crime) against a
member of the lower class. Also, the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a
tooth) was a fundamental, or basic, part of this system of justice.
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Hammurabi’s Code took the duties of public officials seriously. Officials who failed to
solve crimes had to make personal restitution, or payment, to the victims or their families.
Judges could be penalized, or punished, for ruling incorrectly on a case.
The law code also included what today we would call consumer-protection laws.
Builders were held responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a house fell down and
caused the owner to die, the builder was put to death.
The largest category of laws in the Code of Hammurabi addressed marriage and
family. Parents arranged marriages for their children. This means that they chose their
children’s marriage partners. After marriage, the two parties signed a marriage contract.
This made the marriage legal.
Mesopotamian society was patriarchal—that is, men dominated the society.
Hammurabi’s Code shows that women had far fewer rights in marriage than men had.
A woman’s place was definitely in the home. A husband could divorce his wife if she
failed to fulfill her duties, was unable to have children, or tried to leave home to engage in
business. Even harsher, a wife who neglected her home or humiliated her husband could be
drowned.
Fathers ruled their children as well. Children had to be obedient, and punishment for
not obeying was severe. For example, the Code had a law that a father could cut off his
son’s hand if the son hit the father. If a son committed a serious enough offense, his father
could disinherit him. Hammurabi’s laws clearly covered almost every aspect of people’s
lives.
PROGRESS CHECK
Interpreting What was Hammurabi like as a conqueror and as a ruler?
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Lesson 2 Egypt and Kush
IT MATTERS BECAUSE
After a period of disorder, new dynasties of pharaohs established the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 B.C.).
The New Kingdom brought back Egyptian greatness and created an empire that made Egypt the most
powerful state in the ancient Near East. To the south of Egypt, the new kingdom of Kush arose.
Egypt: The New Kingdom
GUIDING QUESTION What was distinctive about the New Kingdom in ancient Egypt?
The Middle Kingdom came to an end around 1650 B.C. when a group of people from
western Asia known as the Hyksos (HIHK•sahs) invaded Egypt.
Influence of the Hyksos
The Hyksos used horse-drawn war chariots, or two-wheeled carts, to defeat the
Egyptian soldiers. The Egyptians used donkey carts, and they were not able to fight as well
from them. For almost 100 years, the Hyksos ruled much of Egypt. The presence of the
Hyksos was not entirely negative for Egypt, however.
The conquered Egyptians learned a great deal from the Hyksos. They learned to use
bronze to make their farming tools and weapons. The Egyptians also mastered many of the
military skills of the Hyksos, especially the use of horse-drawn war chariots. Eventually, a
new dynasty of pharaohs used the new weapons to drive out the Hyksos and reunite Egypt.
Height of the New Kingdom
Pharaoh Ahmose I managed to defeat and expel, or drive out, the Hyksos from
Egypt. He reunited Egypt and established the New Kingdom, which lasted from 1550 B.C. to
1070 B.C. Ahmose put the Egyptians on a new militaristic path of expansion. He developed a
more professional army.
During the period of the New Kingdom, Egypt created an empire. It became the most
powerful state in the ancient Near East. Thutmosis I expanded Egypt’s border to the south
by conquering the African kingdom of Nubia. Thutmosis III led 17 military campaigns into
Canaan and Syria. He and his forces even reached as far east as the Euphrates River. His
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forces moved into and took control of Canaan. However, local native princes were allowed to
rule there. Egypt now pursued an active political and diplomatic policy.
The new Egyptian imperial state reached its height during the reign of Amenhotep III
(c. 1412–1375 B.C.). The empire’s achievements were visible in the magnificent new
buildings and temples. The temple centers at Karnak and Luxor and the 70-foot- (21.33-m-)
high statues of Amenhotep III in front of temples along the Nile were especially famous.
By the end of his reign, Amenhotep III faced a growing military challenge from the
Hittites. His son, Amenhotep IV, proved even less able to deal with this threat. In large part,
this was a result of the religious upheaval he had created in Egypt.
The pharaoh Amenhotep IV introduced the worship of Aten as the only god. Aten was
the god of the sun disk. Amenhotep pursued the worship of Aten with great enthusiasm. He
closed the temples of other gods. He changed his name to Akhenaten, which means
“Servant of Aten.” He even set up a new capital called Akhetaten (“Horizon of Aten”). The
new city was located at modern Tell el- ‘Amârna, 200 miles (321.87 km) north of Thebes.
Akhenaten’s attempt at religious change failed. The society had always worshiped
many gods. Many Egyptians saw Akhenaten’s actions in destroying the old gods as the
destruction of Egypt itself. Akhenaten’s changes were soon undone. After his death, the
boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen restored the old gods. During the New Kingdom, an Egyptian
queen became pharaoh. Hatshepsut was at first regent for her stepson Thutmosis III. Later
she assumed the throne herself. Hatshepsut’s reign was prosperous. This is especially
evident in the construction that happened during that time. She built a great temple
dedicated to herself at Deir el-Bahri, near Thebes. As pharaoh, Hatshepsut sent out military
expeditions, encouraged mining, and sent an expedition up the Nile to look for more places
to trade. Hatshepsut’s official statues sometimes show her clothed and bearded like a king.
She was addressed as “His Majesty.” Hatshepsut was aware of her unusual position. She
placed an inscription on one of her temples that reflects her thoughts. She wondered about
what people of the future would think about her actions.
The Egyptian Empire Ends
The upheavals resulting from Amenhotep’s religious revolution led to a loss of
Egypt’s empire. The pharaoh was preoccupied with religious affairs. He ignored foreign
affairs and, as a result, he lost both Syria and Canaan. Under Ramses II, who reigned from
c. 1279 B.C. to 1213 B.C., the Egyptians went back on the offensive. They regained control
of Canaan. However, they were unable to reestablish the borders of their earlier empire.
New invasions in the 1200s B.C. by the “Sea Peoples,” as the Egyptians called them,
destroyed Egyptian power in Canaan and drove the Egyptians back within their old frontiers.
The days of Egyptian Empire ended. The New Kingdom collapsed in 1070 B.C.
For the next thousand years, Egypt was dominated periodically by Libyans, Nubians,
Persians, and, finally, Macedonians after the conquest of Alexander the Great. In the first
century B.C., the pharaoh Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt’s independence. Her
involvement with Rome led to her defeat and suicide. Egypt then became a province in
Rome’s empire.
PROGRESS CHECK
Identifying Central Issues What was the worship of Aten, and how did it affect Egypt?
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The Kingdom of Kush
GUIDING QUESTION How did Kush emerge as a strong early African civilization?
South of Egypt is an area known as Nubia. A busy trade had arisen between Egypt
and Nubia by 2000 B.C. Egyptian merchants traveled to Nubia to get ivory, ebony wood,
frankincense (a fragrant tree resin), and leopard skins. Nubia was under Egyptian control
for many centuries. With the collapse of the New Kingdom, Nubia freed itself. It became the
independent state of Kush around 1000 B.C.
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In 750 B.C., Kush conquered Egypt. In 663 B.C., however, the Assyrians
overwhelmed the Kushites. The Assyrians were better armed with iron spears and swords.
The Kushites were still using bronze and stone weapons. The Kushites were driven out of
Egypt. They returned to their original lands in the upper Nile valley.
The economy of Kush was at first based on farming. Millet and other grain crops
were grown along the banks of the Nile River. Kush soon emerged as one of the major
trading states in the region. Its center was the city of Meroë, which was well-located. A
newly opened land route across the desert to the north crossed the Nile River at Meroë. The
city also had the advantage of having a large supply of iron ore. The Kushites learned iron
smelting from the Assyrians. They made iron weapons and tools that were sent abroad.
For the next several hundred years, Kush was a major trading empire that had links
to other states throughout the region. Kush traded its own iron products, as well as goods
from Central and East Africa, to the Roman Empire, Arabia, and India. The major exports of
Kush were ivory, gold, ebony, and slaves. In return, the Kushites received luxury goods,
including jewelry and silver lamps from India and Arabia.
Not much is known about Kushite society. It seems likely that it was mostly urban.
At first, state authorities probably controlled foreign trade. The presence of many luxury
goods in many private tombs indicates that material prosperity was relatively widespread at
one time. This evidence also suggests that a fairly large merchant class carried on trading
activities. The merchants of Meroë built large houses with central courtyards. Like the
Romans, they also built public baths. Kushite prosperity was also evident in the luxurious
palaces of the Kushite kings. Like the Egyptian pharaohs, these kings were buried in
pyramids. However, their pyramids were considerably smaller than those of their Egyptian
models.
The state of Kush flourished from about 250 B.C. to about A.D. 150. It then began to
decline, or weaken, possibly because of the rise of a new power in the region known as
Axum. Axum was located in the highlands of modern-day Ethiopia. Axum prospered because
of its location along the Red Sea, on the trade route between India and the Mediterranean
Sea.
PROGRESS CHECK
Describing What was life like at different times in the kingdom of Kush?
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Lesson 3 Assyria
IT MATTERS BECAUSE
After 700 B.C., new empires arose in western Asia. They covered vast areas of the ancient world. The
Assyrians were better at conquest than at ruling. Their empire lasted less than 100 years. The Persian
Empire brought many years of peace to Southwest Asia, increasing trade and the improving the lives of
its people.
The Assyrian Empire
GUIDING QUESTION What characterized the empire of the Assyrians?
The first of the new empires was located in Assyria, which was on the upper Tigris
River. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking people. They used powerful iron weapons to
establish their empire by 700 B.C. The Assyrian Empire included Mesopotamia, parts of the
plateau of Iran, sections of Asia Minor, Syria, Israel, and Egypt down to Thebes. In less than
100 years, however, internal strife and resentment of Assyrian rule began to tear the
Assyrian Empire apart. In 612 B.C., the empire fell to a coalition of Chaldeans and Medes
(people who lived in the east). Seven years later, the empire was divided between the two
powers.
At its height, the Assyrian Empire was ruled by kings with absolute, or total, power.
Under their leadership, the Assyrian Empire became well organized. Local officials were
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directly responsible to the king. The Assyrians also developed an efficient system of
communication. It allowed them to govern, or run, their empire effectively. A network of
staging posts was established throughout the empire. Relays of horses carried messages
between the posts in most places, and mules or donkeys carried them in the mountains.
The system was so effective that a governor anywhere in the empire could send a question
to the king and receive an answer from the king within a week.
The Assyrians were good at conquering others. They practiced for many years to
develop effective military leaders and fighters. They enlisted and deployed troops
numbering in the hundreds of thousands. However, most campaigns were not on such a
large scale. The Assyrian army was well organized and disciplined. The infantry, or group of
foot soldiers, was its core. They were joined by cavalry (soldiers fighting on horseback) and
horse-drawn war chariots. The chariots were used as a place from which to shoot arrows.
Also, the Assyrians had the first large army equipped with iron weapons.
The army’s success was also based on its ability to use different military tactics. The
Assyrians used guerrilla warfare in the mountains and had battles on open ground. They
were especially known for siege warfare, which means surrounding a place and cutting it off
to force it to surrender. They used battering rams to hammer at the city’s walls. They also
used siege towers, which were tall structures from which archers could shot into the city.
Then Assyrian soldiers would tunnel under the walls, making them collapse.
The Assyrians used terror as an instrument of warfare. They regularly destroyed the
land in which they were fighting. They smashed dams and looted and destroyed towns.
They set crops on fire and cut down trees, particularly fruit trees. The Assyrians were also
known for committing atrocities, or shockingly cruel acts, on their captives.
The Assyrian Empire was a mix of cultures. The Assyrians took over much of
Mesopotamian civilization. They saw themselves as guardians of Sumerian and Babylonian
culture. One of the last Assyrian kings, Ashurbanipal, established one of the world’s first
libraries at Nineveh. This library has provided a great deal of information about ancient
Southwest Asian civilizations.
PROGRESS CHECK
Interpreting What factors helped the Assyrians assume and maintain power?
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