Download Unit 1 – Rome – revision notes 2

Marriage, Divorce and the Power of the Father
Marriage
The Romans believed strongly in marriage and were always monogamous (they only had one wife/husband at a
time) and the goal of marriage was the production and education of children. In upper class families the marriage
was often arranged and dissolved for political or financial reasons and even in poor families it was rare to marry
for love. The parents saw it as their responsibility to select the ‘right’ partner for their child. Children could be
betrothed (promised in marriage) as young as two years of age. It was legal for girls to get married at the age of
12 and for boys to marry at 14.
There were originally two types of marriage:
1. There was a special ceremony and the woman passed from her father’s control to that of her new
husband.
2. A man and a woman were considered to be married if they were living together for the purpose of having
children. This form of marriage became increasingly popular in the first century AD, especially among
poor Romans.
Before a couple could get married they had to each get their father’s permission. Once the father gave his
consent for a marriage the couple became informally engaged. This was followed by a banquet at which the man,
who was usually about 10 years older than the woman, gave his fiancée a large present and the father-in-law was
promised a dowry in return. At this point the girl usually received a gold ring from the man in order to show she
was his fiancée.
The night before the wedding, the bride would offer her bulla and childhood toys to the lares (spirits) of her
family home to demonstrate she was leaving this household for that of her husband and becoming a woman. She
would sleep in her wedding dress. On the day of the wedding – June was a popular month because Juno was the
protector of marriage – the groom and his friends would arrive at the brides house early in the morning. The
matron of honour would join the couples right hands for the marriage ceremony, an animal was sacrificed, they
would share a special wheaten cake and then the marriage contract was signed. The groom paid for a reception
(party) after the ceremony at which there was food dancing and music.
The bride wore a long white tunic style dress tied at the waist by a woollen girdle with a saffron coloured cloak
over it, an orange veil and yellow shoes. After the reception she would be escorted by all her guests to her new
home. Her husband would seize her from her mother in order to show he now possessed her. He would then
carry her over the threshold of the new home. At the new home she did a set of symbolic acts: she painted the
doorpost with oil and covered it with wool and touched the hearth fire and the water inside the house.
Divorce
Either a man or a woman could ask for a divorce. There was very little stigma attached to it.
Divorce was easy in Rome. If a man wanted to divorce his wife he simply sent her back to her father and returned
her dowry. Any children of the marriage legally belonged to the father.
A woman could be divorced for:
 not being able to have children
 adultery
 being out of doors with her head uncovered
 talking in public to a freedwoman
 going to the Games without her husbands permission
The family
The family was very important to the ancient Romans. The family consisted of the father, his wife, his sons and
his unmarried daughters. If his sons were married then their wives and children also were part of the household,
as were the slaves. The Roman word for household was familia. The family was the basis of Roman society. The
father was the head of the family and firmly in control of his household. In the Roman family everyone was
taught to respect authority and discipline.
The main aim of the Roman family was to teach loyalty to the gods, to the family and to Rome. The Romans
believed a strong family made a strong Rome.
The paterfamilias
The father was the head of the family. The oldest male member of the family was called the paterfamilias. The
paterfamilias was a very prestigious role. The senators were called conscripti patres (conscript fathers) to reflect
their power in Rome and their prestige.
In theory the power of the father was limitless. A paterfamilias (male head of the household) held paterpotestas
(the power of life and death over all family members, including slaves and freedmen). Every newborn child would
be laid at the paterfamilias’ feet and he would either accept or reject the baby as a part of the family. He had
control over his married sons and their wives and children, as well as his unmarried sons and daughters, for the
whole of his life. The paterfamilias’ children had to do what he said, no matter how old or how important they
were. They couldn’t even own their own property until he died. When the paterfamilias died, each son became
paterfamilias in his own family.
Women in Ancient Rome
Traditionally women were always in manu (under a man’s control) first their father’s and then their husband’s.
Women in Rome were not allowed to play any role in public life. There were no women in the senate, no women
generals, no women lawyers or emperors. High ranking women could be ‘the power behind the throne’, like
Agrippina II in the early years of Nero’s reign, but they could never take power for themselves.
A Roman matron (married woman) ran the household, controlling the domestic slaves and holding the keys of
the house. In the home she was considered the equal of her husband. By the age of 25 she was allowed to
manage any property she had inherited independently and when her husband was away the wife took control of
all family affairs. As many Roman men spent long periods away at war, this meant women became more and
more powerful in Rome.
Women undertook a range of domestic duties, such as looking after the children, making clothes for the family,
managing the household accounts and slaves and organising all meals. Dinner parties were important
opportunities for Romans to do business and a man’s wife was expected to act as hostess. However, a woman
could be put to death for drinking wine!
Women had restricted lives in comparison to men. A wife was expected to be obedient and loyal to her husband
and to do as he told her. Most girls were less educated than boys and when they went to the baths they had to
go at set times only (when no men would be there) and only sit in high seats at the theatre and amphitheatre.
However, they could still sit together in the circus maximus and this was regarded as a good place for young men
and women to meet and flirt!
A woman was expected to mourn her husband’s death for 10 months (one Roman year). If a woman remarried in
this time she had to sacrifice a pregnant cow.
Working women
Some women worked as bakers, pharmacists, clothes makers, hairdressers, waitresses, dancers, nannies,
shopkeepers and even doctors, but mostly they were wives and mothers. Some women even fought as gladiators
in the arena.
Children, education and upbringing
Children
The Romans had a low birth rate, possibly because their water was carried in lead pipes and lead is thought to
cause infertility. There were few methods of birth control and many children died in the first few years of life.
For these reasons parents were not allowed to mourn any child younger than three years of age.
Some babies died because they were exposed at birth (abandoned and left out in the open) but Romans were
generally against this. Poor families sometimes abandoned babies which were left on doorsteps, by the side of
the road or in the temples. Usually a token was left with the baby in case the parents wanted to claim it back at a
later time. Many of these babies were picked up and raised as slaves.
When a baby was born it was placed on the ground in front of its father. If the father accepted the baby by
picking it up, the baby was given a name and a locket called a bulla. Babies who were not accepted were left
outside to die.
In rich families slaves usually raised the children and many babies were fed by wet nurses (they were breast fed
by a slave rather than their own mother). As soon as children in poor families were old enough to work they were
expected to get a job and contribute to the family finances. Children from rich Roman families were expected to
be as successful as their parents in order to ensure the family honour was maintained.
Education
Most Romans were able to read and write, but few were able to afford to go to school. Roman education was not
very well organised. Traditionally education was done at home, boys were taught by their fathers and girls by
their mothers. Fathers would tell their sons stories about Rome’s heroes and how they had made Rome great
and mother’s would teach their daughters how to manage the household. By the first century most boys were
educated by professional tutors who were usually Greek and either slaves or freedmen.
Primary schools were called ludus and students would start at about 7 years of age. They were taught the three
basic subjects – reading, writing and arithmetic. Most teaching took place in porticos (verandahs) or on the street
and classes were very small, only about 12 students per class. Classes began very early in the morning
(sometimes it was still dark) and discipline was strict. Students learnt things off by heart and were frequently
beaten as a punishment if they forget their lessons or broke the rules.
Most students finished school when they were about 12 years old. Not very many students went to the
grammaticus (secondary school) where the focus was on Latin and Greek literature, history, geography and
music. Any students who continued in education would then learn rhetoric (public speaking) and philosophy.
Sons of Roman senators were expected to have a career in politics and/or the law. For this, rhetoric (public
speaking) was vital. So it was this elite group that continued their education beyond age 16. Students learned the
theory of rhetoric, studying examples from Greek and Latin literature and then did practical exercises, composing
their own speeches for weddings, funerals and elections.
Between 14 and 17 the Roman male ‘came of age’ ie became a full citizen of Rome. This important change from
child to adult was marked by wearing the white toga virilis and going to the Records Office to be officially enrolled
as a citizen of Rome. This was celebrated with a family banquet. The young man could now be called up to fight
for Rome ie he was now liable for military service.
Roman Social Structure
If both parents were freeborn Romans then their children could become Roman citizens. By the end of the 1st
century, children of slaves and even ex-slaves could also become citizens. Women could have citizen status but
they were never allowed to vote. This was because they were always considered to be under the control of their
father or husband. Men had to be 25 years old before they could vote, which was fairly old in a world where the
average lifespan was 30 years.
Government
During the time of the Roman Empire the emperors controlled the government as well as the army. In Rome the
emperor was advised by the Senators, but he could ignore them as his word was law.
The Senate was usually made up of about 300 men who were called Senators. They wore a broad purple stripe on
their toga to show their status. Traditionally, senators were very important and governed Rome. They had made
decisions about war or peace and advised the Roman citizens how they should vote and which laws should be
accepted or rejected. However, during the 1st century AD the Senate became less powerful as the emperor
began to make all of the decisions for Rome. The early emperors tried to work with the Senate but by the time of
Nero the emperors power was much greater than the Senate and the senators were only figureheads.
No one was paid for being part of the government in Rome. This meant that only the rich could afford to be
Senators. To become a Senator a Roman citizen needed to:
 come from a rich and powerful family
 have many clients
 be well educated
 be well known for military or legal achievements
 have been elected to the role of quaestor (a financial assistant to either a general or a governor)
The law
In the early first century AD the senators heard criminal cases but slowly the emperor and his representatives
became the sole judge. This gave the emperor and his freedman a significant amount of power.
The Roman legal system was based on the idea of precedent (this is still used in Britain today). It means you look
at what has happened in other similar cases and make your decision in the new case based on what has gone
before.
Patronage
Patronage was an idea that ran through the whole of Roman society. It is a system which operates when the
client needs money or influence from some person (the patron) and the patron can see some return for the
favour, such as political support or the prestige of having many clients.
Patronage was a key feature of Roman life. In return for help a Roman would agree to do what his patron
(patronus) told him to. This included voting for whoever the patron wanted to be elected. The person following
instructions was called a client (cliens). It was a terrible thing for a client to go against his patron. Successful
Romans would have huge numbers of clients, for example Pompey the Great had over 500,000 clients living in
different parts of the empire.
In Rome, everyone except the emperor was someone’s client. This meant most Romans would be both a patron
and a client at the same time. A wealthy freedman for example could have many poor clients but he would still
remain a client of his former master.
The responsibilities of the patron and client were:
A Patron:
A Client:
 Explained laws to his clients
 Provided money to his patron for a
dowry
 Defended his clients in court
 Helped raise ransom money if his patron
 Gave his clients food or money
or his children were captured in war
 Helped his clients if they were in trouble
 Helped pay his patron’s debts
 Was like a father to his clients.
 Did what the patron wanted
 Was like a relative of the patron
The salutatio (salutation or greeting) occurred every morning. A patron’s clients would go to his house to greet
him. They would be acknowledged in order of importance and then they would move on to the house of his
patron. The salutatio was important because it demonstrated your status in Rome – the more clients you had the
more influential you were. It was also important for the clients who would be given their daily dole. As the
patrons moved to the house of their patron, dressed in their splendid white togas, their clients made a spectacle,
the whole procession would end up in the forum and the real business of the day would begin.
Slaves and Freedmen
Slavery
Rome’s wealth and success were partly based on slavery. People were bought and sold like any other property,
some people even sold themselves as slaves to pay off their debts. However most slaves were prisoners of war
and as Rome conquered more and more countries, more and more slaves came to Italy. You could also become a
slave if you were born to slaves, sold into slavery or given away by your parents as a slave. Slaves were bought
and sold at auctions and usually ended up working in their owners home or on their farm.
Slaves who worked in households and towns:
 Came mainly from Greece and the East
 Were well educated
 Became like a part of the owner’s family
 Were sometimes paid
 Were usually well treated
 Had a roof over their head and food
Slaves who worked in the fields and country:
 Were mainly from what the Romans
called ‘barbarian’ (uncivilised) countries
 Were poorly educated
 Were sometimes chained
 Were seldom paid
 Were poorly treated
 Often worked in very dangerous silver or
lead mines
In Rome’s early history slave owners could treat their slaves badly without any penalty. They could even kill
them. Gradually the Romans introduced rules to give slaves some protection from harsh treatment. However
slaves could still be beaten or crucified. Slaves were tortured before they gave evidence in court because the
Romans believed this would make sure they told the truth!
Slaves were not allowed to get married. If a salve couple had a baby it became the slave owners property. In this
way slave owners could increase the number of slaves they owned. Some slaves were sold to be trained as
gladiators.
Owners were responsible for clothing, feeding and housing their slaves. Country slaves were quite cheap and as a
result slave owners didn’t care much if they lived or died. Slaves in the country sometimes revolted in protest at
their harsh treatment. (Remember Spartacus who led a revolt of 100,000 slaves? He nearly beat the Roman
army, but in the end Spartacus and 6,000 of his supporters were crucified along the main road leading into Rome.
Their bodies were left to rot as a reminder to all slaves not to oppose their owners).
Household slaves performed many important jobs. Many were well educated so they ran the household accounts
and educated the children. Some slaves were even given businesses to run so that they could make profits for
their owners. Many of these slaves were able to save up and buy their freedom, and many others were set free
by their grateful owners. This was called manumission. Some female slaves even married their masters once
they were free.
Slaves were bought and sold at public auctions. When a slave dealer auctioned (sold) a slave he had to place a
scroll around his neck giving the slaves name and describing their character. This scroll was a guarantee. The
dealer had to guarantee that the slave:
 had no diseases
 would not steal
 would not run away
 would not try to commit suicide
If the slave was found to have defects not shown on the guarantee, the dealer had to take him/her back or return
the buyers money. If the dealer was not prepared to give a guarantee, a cap was placed on the slaves head so the
buyers knew they were taking a risk.
Slaves who broke the law were severely punished. If a slave tried to run away but was caught they would have a
metal collar placed around their neck and an F for fugitive branded on their forehead. If the master was killed at
home and the murderer was not caught, all of the slaves who were at the house at the time of the murder were
killed, usually by crucifixion. The Romans were always afraid that the slaves would revolt against them.
The Romans continued with slavery because:
 The slaves did most of the work – from the smallest chore to keeping important records
 The more slaves and owner had, the more he was respected.
But slavery also helped to weaken the Empire because:
 Slaves took the jobs of the free Roman citizens and therefore caused unemployment
 They did not work as hard as free Roman citizens unless they were supervised (there was no incentive to
work hard – they weren’t being paid!) so Rome became inefficient
 The jobs done by slaves were looked down on, this meant that the Romans did not develop certain
industries, for example mining, as much as they might have if such work had been respected.
Freedmen and freedwomen
Freed slaves and their descendants became clients of their owner’s families forever. Ex-slaves were called
freedmen and freedwomen. By the first century AD these people made up a large proportion of Rome’s
population. As free people they were treated as citizens and their children were born free.
Many of these freedmen and freedwomen became very rich and had their own slaves. The Romans never tried to
abolish slavery as even the poorest family might have had a slave or two to do some work for them. Owning a
slave in Rome was a bit like owning a car today.
Roman Religion
The early Romans were influenced by both the Etruscans (people who lived in Italy) and the Greeks in their
religion. The first Romans believed that there were spirits in the air, earth and water. They also believed that
these spirits had to be kept happy, so they made regular sacrifices to the deities (gods). In every home there was
an altar where a sacrifice was made each morning to the lares (household deities) such as Janus the god of gates
and doors who protected the entrance to the home and Vesta who was the goddess of the hearth (fireplace). The
Romans had two classes of gods: those who protected the state and those who protected the family.
Family gods: Roman religion in the early days centred around the family. People were mainly farmers and their
gods were closely connected to the needs of the farm. There were spirits for fields, doorways of the house, the
fireplace and the house itself. There were also spirits that looked after the sowing of seed and even one for
baking bread! The father was in charge of making sure that important services to the spirits were closely
observed. The Romans believed that the family gained strength by worshipping gods and that in turn this would
make Rome strong. If the family carried out their religious duties then the gods would treat the family well. This
contract between the family and the gods was called religio.
State gods: the greatest of the state gods were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. High government officials acted as
priests as well as carrying out their other duties. As with the family strict religious practices had to be observed.
Special priests advised the government on the will of the gods. The flight of a bird, a flash of lightning or the
study of a body of a dead animal could have special religious meaning.
The Romans had many other gods and goddesses, each of whom looked after a different part of life. The main
deities worshipped were:
 Jupiter: king of the gods and god of thunder and lightning
 Juno: queen of the gods, wife of Jupiter and goddess of women and children
 Minerva: goddess of wisdom
 Neptune: king of the sea
 Ceres: goddess of agriculture
 Mars: god of war
 Bacchus: god of wine
 Mercury: god of trade
 Venus: goddess of love
 Cupid: god of love
 Diana: goddess of the hunt.
Before important events the Romans sacrificed animals to the gods and examined the internal organs to see if the
omens (signs) were good. During the month of May, just before the early harvest began, the Romans held a
festival called the Ambarvalia. Work stopped for the day and the animals to be sacrificed were led around the
fields three times. A prayer was said and then the animals were sacrificed. This was supposed to appease (make
happy) Ceres the goddess of agriculture and lead to a good harvest. In December Saturnalia was a festival to
honour the god Saturn, this was an opportunity to exchange gifts and give slaves a treat.
Romans were very superstitious. For example the army would take special chickens with them on a campaign and
every morning corn was fed to these chickens, if they ate the corn, it was considered a good omen for the army.
Other superstitions include:
 a long drought could be broken by rolling a big stone through the streets of Rome
 stumbling on the threshold when leaving the home was a bad omen
 if a rooster crowed during a banquet the correct spells had to be said or nothing could be eaten
 ringing bells near a woman giving birth eased her pain
 bees were messengers of the gods and brought good fortune.
Romans built huge temples to their gods and goddesses. Inside the temple was a statue of the deity as well as
any offerings that people made to gain the god or goddesses favour. The priests and priestesses looked after the
temples. Eventually, worship of these deities spread across the whole empire, even the Roman emperor was
worshipped as a living god, in parts of the empire.
Festivals
The Romans had many festivals and periods of celebration. Most of these dated back to the days when Rome was
an agricultural society and were connected with keeping the gods happy so that the harvest would be good. By
the first century AD there were more than 200 festival days a year. On these days public games were held and
businesses shut down so people could celebrate.
Two important festivals were:
 Ludi florales: (28 April – 3 May) when flowers were displayed and people wore brightly coloured
necklaces of flowers and danced.
 Saturnalia (17-24 December) which was a time of giving presents. On one day of the festival, owners
served their slaves and gave them dinner and gifts.
The Romans and the Christians
Christianity came from Palestine and reached Rome in the second half of the first century AD. It was very popular
with the poor and spread quickly throughout the empire. Like the Jews, the Christians believed there was only
one god and refused to worship any Roman gods. Christians were frequently persecuted by the Roman
emperors, most famously by Emperor Nero who blamed them for the Great Fire in 64AD and among other
punishments used them as human candles to light the games at night.
Vestal virgins
Vesta was goddess of the domestic hearth. In Rome she was served by six patrician girls who were chosen by lot
at age six. They were required to serve Vesta for 30 years from the age of ten at the House of the Vestals. This
was next to the Temple of Vesta where it was their responsibility to ensure the sacred flame never went out.
Romans believed that if the flame went out, disaster would befall them.
Vestal virgins were expected to be chaste and if they broke their vow they would be whipped or buried alive.
Once their 30 years of service was up they were free to marry, but most were regarded as too old to be a wife by
this stage. However, they were very highly respected and having a family member as a vestal virgin was seen as a
very great honour.
Death, funerals and the afterlife
Roman beliefs about what happened after death varied greatly. For most Romans, the afterlife was a gloomy
place of shadows and sometimes torment…not all that different to the Christian and Muslim ideas of hell.
The Romans called the underworld Hades and believed it was governed by the god Pluto. After death your soul
would be carried off either by good or bad spirits. To get to the underworld you had to pass Cerebus, the many
headed dog who guarded the entrance and then cross the river Styx by paying Charon the boatman. The souls of
the dead would then be judged, most were left in a fearful limbo with only a few heroes or deified emperors
(emperors who were made into gods) escaping to the paradise of the Elysian fields. For most Romans life in the
here and now was more important than the afterlife.
Romans were mostly buried and cremation was not common. All burials took place outside the city walls. The
rich and powerful had large and elaborately decorated tombs, the largest of which were called mausoleums and
were designed to house the entire family. The tombs were works of art and the poems and inscriptions teach us
a lot about Roman life at the time. Poorer citizens would make contributions to a burial club so that they could be
buried with a grave marker or amphorae.
Traditionally a close relation tried to catch the dying man’s last breath with a kiss, then close his eyes. All present
at the time of death shouted the dead man’s name and careful preparations for the burial began. The funeral
began with the laying out of the corpse for seven days, during which friends and family would come and pay their
respects. Then there was a funeral procession to the burial place and after the burial there would be a funerary
banquet. The dead were buried with things he might need for whatever lay ahead – food and drink, clothing and
tools. The family would regularly return to the tomb to remember their dead ancestors and often have picnics
there.
Romans believed that the dead haunted the living and that they had to be kept happy with offerings and games.
Romans were very serious in honouring the dead. The family death masks were kept on prominent display in the
home and taken out and paraded through the streets on special occasions.
Entertainment in Ancient Rome
Throughout Roman history there were three favourite forms of entertainment:



gladiatorial contests
chariot racing
the theatre
In Rome ambitious politicians (and emperors who were concerned the population might be falling out of love
with them!) would put on a big show to try and win votes (and popularity). The emperors kept the Romans happy
by providing free shows. These spectacles or ‘games’ were very expensive, for example once the colosseum was
flooded to hold a mock naval battle.
Gladiators
The brutal gladiatorial games took place in the amphitheatres. The most famous of these was the colosseum. It
was built in AD80 by the Emperor Vespasian as a gift to the people. It was a very advanced building using
concrete for the roof, floor and pillars. The colosseum was richly decorated with marble, paintings and carvings.
It could seat 60,000 spectators, but its exits were designed so the crowd could get out in minutes!
Gladiators were trained fighters who usually fought one another or wild animals. Many gladiators became rich
and famous, just like sportspeople today, but if a gladiator was beaten by his opponent it was up to the emperor
or the crowd to decide if he would live or die. It was thumbs up for live and thumbs down for die. Sometimes
condemned criminals were forced to fight to the death in the arena and many Christians were torn to pieces by
wild animals during the persecutions.
Gladiatorial combat started out as a part of funeral celebrations. The spirits of the dead were thought to
appreciate human blood, so captives or slaves were set to fight each other to the death at patrician funerals. As
time went on gladiator combat became a part of the games. The gladiator games were not an everyday event,
they were only held on special occasions and very often very lavish. The emperor Trajan once organised a display
that went on for 117 days with almost 10,000 gladiators taking part.
A typical program for gladiatorial games:
1. procession
2. the emperor arrives
3. minor entertainment, for example acrobats
4. beast shows, this could be animals against each other, unarmed men (usually criminals) against animals,
or hunters showing their skill.
5. Comedy, sometimes this was replaced by a spectacle of untrained men hacking at each other with various
weapons
6. Gladiator show
At first gladiators were recruited from among slaves, condemned criminals or war captives. A successful gladiator
could win his rudis (wooden sword) of liberty, after three years in the arena and to make enough money from
gifts to retire comfortably. Later, free men volunteered to train as gladiators in the hope of winning fame and
making their own fortune.
Special schools were set up to train gladiators and their training was hard and brutal. A novice (trainee) gladiator
had to swear the following oath ‘I solemnly swear to obey the trainer in everything. To endure burning,
imprisonment, flogging and even death by the sword.’ Although discipline was harsh, accommodation was
comfortable and the food was good.
Novice (trainee) gladiators learned to fight with wooden swords and wicker shields, attacking a wooden post
before they practiced with each other. It took several years to train a skilled gladiator so they did not usually fight
to the death (this would have been a waste of money).
By the first century AD there were a number of different types of gladiator who were usually identified by their
equipment and fighting tactics:
 Samnites: were like a Roman legionary, he had a large crested helmet, a short stabbing sword, leg guards
and a rectangular shield
 Thracians: had a small round or square shield, leg guards and carried a curved sword.
 Secotors: had an egg shaped helmet, a large rectangular shield, an arm guard and a stabbing sword.
 Gauls: had a fish on their helmets, a medium length sword and a long flat shield

Retiarius: fought with a net and a trident and had armour only on his left arm and shoulder (technically he
was not a gladiator because he did not have a sword)
Chariot races
In the chariot races there were four teams (factiones) – the blue (supported by the senators), the green
(supported by the common people), the red and the white – and they raced in the circus maximus. The crowds
knew who owned the chariots by the colour of the driver’s tunic. The drivers were usually slaves, as it was a very
dangerous sport. Crowds of up to 25,000 people would attend to cheer for their favourite team and bet on the
results. The emperor started the race by dropping a white handkerchief. Chariots were light carts pulled by
teams of four or eight horses and whoever won a chariot race was seen as a hero.
Each race lasted 7 laps of the circus (about 4 km) and the most spectacular part was when the horses went
around the turns. This was the most dangerous part of the race. Drivers would try to get as close to the turning
post as possible and even the slightest mistake would mean the chariot overturned. At one end of the circus
stood seven bronze eggs and dolphins, at the end of each lap one of these would be removed so the crowd knew
how many laps were left to be run. Charioteers wore short sleeveless tunics and leather helmets and carried
knives. Drivers tied the reins around their bodies and if the chariot overturned they would be dragged to the
ground by the racing horses. The knife was to cut themselves free if this happened or if there was a collision.
Spectators would often queue up over night in order to get the best seats. Many brought their own food and
drink as well as cushions and umbrellas. However, eating was not allowed while a race was happening. As well
as the races there were exhibitions of trick riding and other less dangerous gymnastic sports.
Like gladiators, most charioteers were slaves or ex-slaves, but a few became very famous and very rich. If
successful, they would be given gifts from politicians and other rich men and their factio (colour group) would pay
very high wages to keep the best drivers. The Roman people would bet heavily on the outcome of chariot races
and there were often fights among different groups of supporters – a lot like football fans today!
Theatre
Theatre was one of the most popular forms of Roman entertainment. It was introduced from Greece but Roman
productions were more musical and had much more dancing and a lot of the acting was done through mime.
Crowds of up to 25,000 people attended plays. The audience cheered or booed the action and had their favourite
actors. Plays were written by both Greeks and Romans and were originally performed in wooden theatres which
were dismantled when the play finished. The first permanent theatre was built in Rome in 55BC.
Men played all of the parts in Roman plays – including those of women. Condemned criminals were sometimes
used in a play if the story required a person to be killed – it was thought an actual death on stage made the play
more realistic and appealing to the audience!
Other entertainments
Other popular entertainments were:
 Board games: one called Twelve Lines is similar to modern backgammon and Robbers is like draughts.
 Toys: wooden, clay and rag dolls, dolls’ furniture, model animals, pull-along toys, and model soldiers have
all been found by archaeologists.
 Knucklebones, tops and hoops were all popular with girls and women.
 Gambling games using dice were very popular and took many forms.
 Ball games: these were like modern rugby and teams would travel around the country competing.
A day in the life of a Roman
The daily routine
For average Romans the day began at dawn. People would get out of bed, put on their tunic or toga, have a glass
of water and some bread and cheese or honey and be ready to start the day. Women might comb their hair but
men would leave home and go to the barber for a shave. Rich Romans might have a slave who was skilled at
shaving a beard. Nobody washed until they visited the baths later in the day.
Most Roman women stayed at home or did the shopping during the day but wealthy women could go out, visit
friends and prepare for guests. Women also had to make sure that slaves did as they were told.
Roman men, and some Roman women, would go to work. Many Romans owned their own shops, and skilled
workers were highly sought after. Rich Roman patrons would meet their clients in the morning. After this they
might go to the Forum to see what was happening in the courts and businesses. Around 2pm the men would go
to the baths for their daily wash and to meet their friends. After this, they returned home for their evening meal.
In summer the Roman working day was 7 hours long but only 6 hours in winter.
Unemployed Romans went to their patron’s home in the morning to receive small amounts of money or gifts of
food. In Rome in the first century AD 150,000 people were given free corn daily by the emperor. This was
enough to feed themselves for the day and was known as the corn dole.
If it was a public holiday the routine would be similar except that both men and women would go to the free
entertainment which was provided in the arena or the circus. These entertainments were conducted in daylight
hours because there was no gas or electric lighting. As dusk approached people would return to their homes and
prepare for the next days activities.
The baths
For us, a bath tends to be private: not for the Romans! Wealthy men such as Senators might have a private bath
in their home, but most citizens and their wives visited the public baths.
The Romans were very health conscious. They built enormous bathing houses (thermae) where people of both
sexes could wash and keep clean. Very few houses had a bath so people went to the baths for their daily wash.
Many of the bath houses were built by Roman emperors and admission was usually free. Some baths had
separate areas for men and women, others simply opened at different times for men and women. In the
afternoon men would catch up on the latest gossip and relax after a hard days work. The baths would usually stay
open until dusk, when people would return home for the evening meal. The baths also included open air exercise
areas, fountains, gardens, shops, rest rooms, massage parlours, museums and libraries. The bath house was a
community sport and recreation centre much like the modern leisure centre.
The baths opened around noon. The visit to the baths was partly in preparation for dinner (cena) which started in
the late afternoon. The Romans would engage in some exercise first, for example discus, wrestling, boxing,
weight training, ball games or for the ladies bowling hoops; the bathing experience would then begin. The
hypocaust (underground central heating system) was run by slaves and was used to keep the different rooms of
the bathhouse at different temperatures.
A bath house consisted of four main parts:
1. The apodyterium – the cloakroom where clothes were left
2. The tepidarium – a warm room with a small pool, you took your oil and strigil in here
3. The caladarium – the hot room which had a small pool in which you soaked
4. The frigidarium – a room with a large, cold swimming pool which you plunged into to close your pores.
A wealthy Roman would return to the tepidarium after his soak in the caladarium and have his slaves apply oil to
his body, massage him and then have the oil scraped off with a strigil. If you were not wealthy enough to bring
your own slave to the baths you could hire one there. The oiling and scraping was a way of keeping clean
(remember, the Romans didn’t have soap).
Other activities at the bath house included using the gymnasium, gossiping, having a massage, having your hair
plucked or doing business.
Food
Most Romans ate simple food and drank wine or water. They ate little meat and lived on vegetables and wheat
which was made into bread. A typical meal might consist of barley soup made with peas, lentils, barley, cabbage,
leeks and other vegetables followed by a dessert of honey bread. This consisted of pieces of bread soaked in milk
then fired in hot oil or fat and served with honey poured over the pieces of hot bread. For ordinary Romans meat
was only eaten on very special days, but rich Romans would eat it frequently and in great amounts.
Wealthy Romans would hold banquets. These were long meals with many different courses that might go on for
days. They also included entertainments such as poetry readings, music, juggling, acrobatics, and performances
by dancing girls. Courses at a banquet may have included:
 Chicken giblets or goose liver
 Braised hare
 Stuffed sows belly
 Truffles and mushrooms
 Salt fish balls in wine sauce
 Nut custard
 Flamingo with special sauce
 A porridge made into little biscuits and
dipped in honey.
 Roast parrot or roast boar
The main meal was eaten in the evening. It was called cena. Members of the household would lie down on
couches and the food was placed on a table in the middle of the room. Slaves would serve the diners. They had
spoons and knives, but no forks so people ate with their fingers.
Town life
In the centre of any Roman town was the forum. This was a large square where the markets were held. People
would come here to buy and sell produce and to meet and talk with others. If there was an important
announcement to be made all of the citizens would be called to the forum.
Along one side of the forum was a long wall called the basilica. This building contained the law courts and this was
where merchants met to do business. The other three sides of the square contained offices and shops. There
were no glass windows, shops had a large opening at the front with a counter across it. Goldsmiths, jewellers,
pastrycooks, shoemakers, florists, hairdressers and ointment sellers as well as potters, wine merchants and olive
oil sellers would be in the forum. Shopping was exciting.
Near the forum were the temples, inside each temple was a statue of a Roman god. Romans would go to the
temples to worship or to consult the augurs who predicted the future.
Living in Rome was not without its dangers. At night the shops were barred and people locked their houses with
chains. When there was no moon the streets were pitch black as there was no lighting. Murder and robbery
were common, so no one dared to come out unless accompanied by slaves with torches. Poorer Romans lived in
blocks of flats several storeys high. They had only a couple of rooms with furniture, perhaps a table and some
stools, and they slept on mats on the floor. They would ccok over an open fire in a metal container and so house
fires were common. There was no plumbing for the poor so they had to fetch water in pots.
Villa life
Not all Romans lived in towns or cities. Some people in the country built magnificent villas. These villas were very
large homes with elaborate mosaics on the floors, highly decorated walls and well planned out gardens.
A typical villa consisted of an open area which was enclosed on all four sides by a wall. Within the wall were
gardens, living areas, stables, storehouses and workshops. The villa was surrounded by fields which produced the
agricultural goods the villa owner would sell. The owner was usually rich and many people lived inside the villa –
the owner, his family, his slaves and farm workers. The Romans also invented central heating, a system known as
hypercaust was used to move hot air and water around pipes under the floor to keep the home warm in winter.
The Romans legacy
We owe a tremendous debt to the Romans. Their language is the basis of 40% of the English language, our laws
are modelled on theirs, we use their methods of engineering today and their inventions such as cement and
central heating have made our lives much more comfortable. We can also thank the Romans for the calendar.
The Roman empire collapsed c.440AD and Europe entered the Dark Ages where barbarians ruled. When Europe
emerged from the Dark Ages c.1000AD it was the Roman systems of organisation, law and lifestyle that were
copied and are still being copied today. For a small city state on the banks of the Tiber river to become a model
for all future generations is one of the incredible events of history. What have the Romans ever done for us…?
Quite a lot actually!